1. Composition

2. Production
     Mining    Calcination and grinding  

3. History
     Early history    Industrial Revolution    Portland cement and the decline of Rosendale  

4. Revival and present day production

5. References

6. External links

Composition

Rosendale natural cement from the Rosendale area was produced from fine-grained, high silica and alumina dolostone mined from the Rosendale and Whiteport members of the late Silurian Rondout formation. Although composition varied, one text quotes CaCO₃ 45.91%, MgCO₃ 25.14%, silica and insoluble 15.37%, Al₂0₃ and Fe₂0₃ 11.38%, water and undetermined 1.20%.^[5]

Production

Mining

Calcination and grinding

Natural cement is produced in a process that begins with the calcination of crushed dolostone in large brick kilns fired initially by wood and then by coal transported to Rosendale by the D&H canal. The resulting clinker is ground into progressively smaller particles. The final product is a fine powder of 50 mesh size. Unlike Portland cement, Rosendale cement does not require mixing of chemical additives. Historically, this natural cement product was packaged in paper-lined wooden barrels weighing 300 lbs or in heavy canvas bags.^[7]

History

Early history

Natural cement rock was first discovered by Canvass White in 1818 in Chittenango east of Syracuse who developed a process for the manufacture of cement which he patented in 1820.^[1] In Rosendale, cement rock was discovered in the summer of 1825 by Canvass White or an assistant engineer for the Delaware and Hudson Canal James McEntee.^[8] The cement was competitive in quality to that of Chittenango and because of its proximity to D&H canal construction, a contract to supply the cement was awarded to John Littlejohn who commenced production in High Falls, New York in 1826.^[9] Littlejohn completed his contract and Judge Lucas Elemdorf picked up cement manufacturer in Lawrenceville, a hamlet of Rosendale grinding the cement on the property of Jacob Low Snyder around 1827.^[10] Soon several cement works were founded most notably by Watson E. Lawrence of whom Lawrenceville is named, the afore mentioned Canvass White and his brother Hugh White who founded Whiteport a hamlet in Rosendale. Another notable cement plant was located in Binnewater, a hamlet of Rosendale run by F. O. Norton in about 1868 and another by A. J. Snyder on his own lands in Lawrenceville in 1850.^[11]

According to Dietrich Werner, the former president of the Century House Historical Society, the proximity of the Rosendale region to the Delaware and Hudson Canal enabled the production and shipment of the natural cement. Soon, Rosendale cement could be found in all major American east coast ports and in the West Indies.^[1]

Industrial Revolution

With the onset of the American Industrial revolution the demand for cement increased. Roads, dams, power plants, bridges, and various North American government projects such as the construction of cisterns, wet cellars, the Croton Aqueduct system were rapidly being built throughout the American landscape.^[1] All of these structures utilized Rosendale natural cement.^[12] In addition to large structures, natural cement was also used to create mortars, stuccos, lime-washes, grouts, and concretes.^[2] In the final year of the 19th century, Rosendale’s cement industry peaked, producing nearly 8.5 million barrels a year. Remnants of cement operations including kilns and the Widow Jane mine are preserved in the Snyder Estate Natural Cement Historic District.^[13]

Portland cement and the decline of Rosendale

By the 20th century, the demand for Rosendale natural cement dropped precipitously while Portland cement rapidly became the most popular building material. There are many reasons for the decline, but it is mainly attributed to advances in the production of Portland cement especially the horizontal rotary cylinder kiln which decreased the cost significantly and tripling output over previous kilns. At the same time, the American Society of Testing Engineers changed their standards to favor Portland cement which was generally perceived as more consistent and with a much shorter drying time ^[7]

By 1910, production dropped to from a high of 8.5 million barrels a year to 1 million and by 1920 there was only one factory still in operation that of A.J. Snyder.^[14]

One revival of the industry occurred in the mid 20th century when A.J. Snyder began to experiment by combining natural cement with Portland cement after New York State engineers noticed the durability of Rosendale cement.^[8] Notable structures built out of this hybrid are New York’s Rockefeller Center in the late 1930s, the New York State Thruway in the 1950s, and the St. Lawrence Seaway in the late 1950s and early 1960s.^[2] Various writers including Uriah Cummings appear to support the anecdotal evidence that Rosendale cement was highly durable and with tensile strength equal to or greater than Portland however the decline in the industry was unstoppable.

By 1970, A. J. Snyder's last Rosendale, NY mine closed. Six year later, natural cement ceased to be produced altogether in the US.^[15] Natural cement was not available in the United States for over thirty years.^[16]

Revival and present day production

While the natural cement industry declined in the early 20th century, demand was later revived by efforts to restore historic buildings and structures using historically accurate materials.^[17] This led to the re-opening in 2004 of the historic Hickory Bush Quarry in Rosendale, New York, operated by Freedom Cement, which currently sells authentic Rosendale cement under the Century Brand trademark.^[18] This product has been used in the restoration of Fort Jefferson National Monument in Florida and the High Bridge in New York City, both of which were originally built using natural cement. Another company, Edison Coatings, continues the tradition of liberal use of the name "Rosendale cement" to market its natural hydraulic cement, though the materials for this product are extracted elsewhere.^[19] Unlike the exhausted or inaccessible sources elsewhere, the mines in Rosendale, New York, still hold countless accessible tons of the highest quality natural cement rock, capable of supplying long-term future needs.^[2]

In 2006, industry standards for the performance properties of natural cement were reintroduced by ASTM International under ASTM C10, Standard Specification for Natural Cement.^[20] Over the past ten years, The Society for the Preservation of Historic Cements, Inc has hosted three conferences on American Natural Cement that attract experts across disciplines, including geologists, engineers, preservationists, historians and architects.^[21]

References

External links

• The Society for the Preservation of Historic Cements, Inc.
• [https://www.centuryhouse.org/ Century House Historical Society]

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