| 词条 | Sleepy Lagoon murder |
| 释义 |
The "Sleepy Lagoon murder" was the name that Los Angeles newspapers used to describe the death of José Gallardo Díaz, who was discovered unconscious and dying on a road near a swimming hole (known as the Sleepy Lagoon) in Commerce, California, on the morning of August 2, 1942. Díaz was taken by ambulance to Los Angeles County General Hospital, where he died shortly afterwards without regaining consciousness. The hospital's autopsy showed that he was inebriated from a party the previous night and had a fracture at the base of his skull. This might have been caused by repeated falls or an automobile accident. The cause of his death remains a mystery to this day. However, the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) was quick to arrest 17 Mexican-American youths as suspects. Despite insufficient evidence, the young men were held in prison, without bail, on charges of murder. The trial ended on January 13, 1943, under the supervision of Judge Charles W. Fricke. Nine of the defendants were convicted of second-degree murder and sentenced to serve time in San Quentin Prison. The rest of the suspects were charged with lesser offenses and incarcerated in the Los Angeles County Jail.[1] The convictions were reversed on appeal in 1944. The case is considered a precursor to the Zoot Suit Riots of 1943. Sleepy Lagoon was a reservoir beside the Los Angeles River that was frequented by Mexican-Americans. Its name came from the popular song "Sleepy Lagoon" by big-band leader and trumpeter Harry James. The reservoir was located near the city of Maywood at approximately what is now 5400 Lindbergh Lane, in Bell, California.[2] The current address has also been given as approximately 5500 Slauson Avenue.[3] BackgroundIn February 1942, the U.S. government interned Japanese Americans from the West Coast, after classifying them as security threats following the United States entry into World War II. It is now recognized that racial discrimination on the part of white California residents and officials contributed strongly to this injustice. As society mobilized for war, thousands of Mexican citizens under the Bracero program arrived to Los Angeles for agricultural jobs, as did hundreds of thousands of black southerners during the Second Great Migration to the city for defense-related jobs such as munitions factories and shipyards. The rapid influx of laborers from Mexico and defense workers of ethnic backgrounds from all across the country into Los Angeles heightened racial tensions in the city. A grand jury, headed by E. Duran Ayres, was appointed by the Los Angeles City Council to investigate an alleged "Mexican crime wave."[4] DeathThe morning of August 2, 1942, José Díaz was found unconscious and later died in the hospital. The autopsy revealed that Díaz was intoxicated and that his death was the result of blunt head trauma. Despite one medical examiner stating that the injuries were consistent with having been hit by a car, 20-year-old Henry Leyvas and 24 members of what the media termed "the 38th Street gang" were arrested for allegedly murdering Díaz. They suspected that rival Pachuco gang fights were the cause of Díaz's death. In response to the alleged murder, the media began a campaign calling for action against "zoot suiters". On August 10, police conducted a roundup of 600 Latinos who were charged with suspicion of assault, armed robbery, and related offenses; 175 were eventually held for various crimes.[4] Criminal trialThe resulting criminal trial is now generally viewed as lacking in the fundamental requirements of due process. Seventeen Latino youths were indicted on the murder charges and placed on trial.[4] The courtroom was small and, during the trial, the defendants were not allowed to sit near, or to communicate with, their attorneys. None of those charged were permitted to change their clothes during the trial by order of Judge Fricke at the request of the district attorney on the grounds that the jury should see the defendants in the zoot suits that were "obviously" worn only by "hoodlums". Every time a name was mentioned by a witness or the district attorney, regardless of how damning the statement was, the named defendant was required to stand up.[5] Judge Fricke also permitted the chief of the Foreign Relations Bureau of the Los Angeles sheriff's office, E. Duran Ayres, to testify as an "expert witness" that Mexicans as a community had a "blood-thirst" and a "biological predisposition" to crime and killing, citing the culture of human sacrifice practiced by their Aztec ancestors.[6] Activist involvementThe Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee was a community organization made up of Los Angeles community members and activists who came together to support the defendants. The SLDC (Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee) was also known as The Citizens' Committee for the Defense of Mexican-American Youth. The committee was labeled a Communist front organization by the California state legislature's Joint Fact-Finding Committee on Un-European American Activities headed by Jack Tenney. Some SLDC members included: Alice McGrath, Josefina Fierro de Bright, Josefa Fierro, Maria Alvez, Luisa Moreno, Dorothy Healey, LaRue McCormick, Lupe Leyvas, Henry Leyvas, Doc Johnson, Frank Lopez, Bert Corona, and Gray Bemis. The SLDC's mission was to mount a civil rights crusade so that "these Mexican-American defendants might have a full measure of justice under the Constitution". The SLDC utilized their contacts with influential community members to promote their cause and for fund-raising purposes to be able to support their cause. After Judge Fricke's verdict in January, the Mexican-American youths were imprisoned without evidence and because they were "Mexican and dangerous", ipso facto. The Mexican American community was outraged and several attorneys challenged Judge Fricke's decisions: George Shibley, Robert Kenny, Clore Ware, Ben Margolis, John McTernan, Carey McWilliams, and several others. Together they hoped to remind the immigrated European American society that minorities had the right to testify in court and have impartial jury trials.[7] McWilliams noted that a few months earlier over 120,000 Japanese Americans were detained and interned in detention camps, and later argued that there were common links between the Japanese-American internment and the anti-Mexican response in the Sleepy Lagoon case.[8] From 1943 through 1944, the state anti-Communist Tenney Committee subpoenaed and investigated the members of the Defense Committee in an attempt to uncover Communist ties.[9] ReversalIn October 1944, the state Court of Appeals unanimously decided the evidence was not sufficient to sustain a guilty verdict. It reversed the 12 defendants' convictions in People v Zammora 66 Cal.App.2d 166. The appeals court also criticized the trial judge for his bias in and mishandling of the case.[10] Cultural referencesThe 1979 play Zoot Suit and the 1981 movie of the same name are loosely based on events surrounding the murder trial. In James Ellroy's novel The Big Nowhere, the Sleepy Lagoon murder plays a major role in the story. See also
References1. ^{{cite journal|last=Larralde|first=Carlos|title=Josefina Fierro and the Sleepy Lagoon Crusade,1942-1945|journal=Southern California Quarterly|date=Summer 2010|volume=92|series=2|pages=117–160|jstor=41172517|doi=10.2307/41172517}} 2. ^{{cite web|url=https://la.curbed.com/maps/zoot-suit-riots-map|title=Mapping LA's Notorious Zoot Suit Riots|last=Chiland|first=Elijah|date=June 5, 2016|work=Curbed|location=Los Angeles|dead-url=|access-date=}} 3. ^{{cite web|url=https://la.curbed.com/2008/4/3/10573910/rumblings-bumbl-200|title=Rumblings & Bumblings Responses: Piero II Rises & Sleepy Lagoon in Commerce|last=|first=|date=April 3, 2008|work=Curbed|location=Los Angeles|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=July 27, 2018}} 4. ^{{Citation|title=People v. Zammora|date=1944|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=sleepy+lagoon+case&hl=en&as_sdt=2,5&case=2516729798903775955&scilh=0|volume=66|pages=166|accessdate=2018-04-09}} 5. ^1 2 Sleepy Laggon and the Sailor Riots of 1943 La Noche Triste 6. ^{{cite book | last = Stacy | first = Lee | year = 2002 | title = Mexico and the United States, Volume 1 | publisher = Marshall Cavendish | location = Page 185 | isbn = 978-0-7614-7402-9}} 7. ^{{cite journal|last=Larralde|first=Carlos|title=Josefina Fierro and the Sleepy Lagoon Crusade, 1942-1945|journal=Southern California Quarterly|date=Summer 2010|volume=92|issue=2|pages=117–160|jstor=41172517|doi=10.2307/41172517}} 8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.chicano.ucla.edu/center/events/Sleepy_Lagoon/SleepyLagoon.htm|title=Conference: “The Sleepy Lagoon Case, Constitutional Rights, and the Struggle for Democracy”|date=8 January 2013|website=ucla.edu}} 9. ^Encyclopedia of Minorities in U.S.A Politics: Hispanic Americans and ... By Jeffrey D. Schultz page 518 10. ^Eduardo Obregón Pagán, Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon: Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime LA (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2003) p 207-8 Further reading
External links
8 : Unsolved murders in the United States|History of Los Angeles County, California|Commerce, California|Mexican-American history|Murdered Mexican Americans|1942 in California|1942 murders in the United States|History of racism in California |
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