请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Essential oil
释义

  1. History

  2. Production

     Distillation  Expression  Solvent extraction  Florasols extraction  Production quantities 

  3. Pharmacology and medical uses

  4. Use in aromatherapy

  5. Use as pesticide

  6. Dilution

     Balsam of Peru  Garlic oil  Eucalyptus oil  Lavender oil  Rose oil 

  7. Dangers

     Flammability  Gynecomastia  Handling  Ingestion  Pesticide residues  Pregnancy  Toxicology 

  8. Standardization of its derived products

  9. See also

  10. References

  11. Further reading

{{for|the Midnight Oil album|Essential Oils (album)}}{{distinguish|essential fatty acid}}{{Vegetable oils|image=SandalwoodEssOil.png|caption=Sandalwood oil}}

An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An essential oil is "essential" in the sense that it contains the "essence of" the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived.[1] The term essential used here does not mean indispensable as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid which are so called since they are nutritionally required by a given living organism.[2] In contrast to fatty oils, essential oils typically evaporate completely without leaving a stain or residue.

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, sfumatura, absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.

Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy, a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition.[3] Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation, and children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use.[4][5]

History

Essential oils have been used in folk medicine throughout history. The earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils is believed to be that of Ibn al-Baitar (1188–1248), an Al-Andalusian (Muslim-controlled Spain) physician, pharmacist and chemist.[6]

Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed. For example: methyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen".[7][8]

Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.

Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.

Production

{{main|Extraction (fragrance)}}

Distillation

{{see also|Distillation}}

Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea tree oil, patchouli, and eucalyptus are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.

Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) which is purifed through a fractional distillation.

The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing.

Expression

Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction).{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry.

Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing.[9]

Solvent extraction

Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils.[10] Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called concretes, which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil-soluble) plant material.

Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to {{convert|-18|C|F}} for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the absolute.

Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method can avoid petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue.

Florasols extraction

Florasol is another solvent used to obtain essential oils. It was originally developed as a refrigerant to replace Freon. Although Florasol is an "ozone-friendly" product, it has a high global warming potential (GWP; 100-yr GWP = 1430).[11] The European Union has banned its use, with a phase-out process that began in 2011, to be completed in 2017.[12] One advantage of Florasol is that the extraction of essential oils occurs at or below room temperature so degradation through high temperature extremes does not occur. The essential oils are mostly pure and contain little to no foreign substances.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

Production quantities

Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[13]

Oil Tonnes
Sweet orange 12,000
Mentha arvensis 4,800
Peppermint 3,200
Cedarwood 2,600
Lemon 2,300
Eucalyptus globulus 2,070
Litsea cubeba 2,000
Clove (leaf) 2,000
Spearmint 1,300

Pharmacology and medical uses

{{Medical citations needed|section|date=June 2014}}The medical value of essential oils is the subject of ongoing research, and varies among species, presence or absence of active compound(s), route of administration, potency, and dosage. Some may be inappropriate for persons with certain medical conditions or who take certain prescriptions or over-the-counter (OTC) medications.

Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. In the stomach, the effect is carminative, relaxing the gastric sphincter and encouraging eructation (belching). Further down the gut, the effect typically is antispasmodic.[14] Typical ingredients for such applications include eucalyptus oils, menthol, capsaicin, anise, and camphor.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}

Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as locally anesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive effect.[14][15]

Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects.[16]{{Unreliable medical source|date=September 2014}} With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents,[17] many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.[18]

Many essential oils affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil, may cause contact dermatitis.[19][20][21][22] They are used in antiseptics and liniments in particular. Typically, they produce rubefacient irritation at first and then counterirritant numbness. Turpentine oil and camphor are two typical examples of oils that cause such effects. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. This is caused by its effect on heat-sensing nerve endings. Some essential oils, such as clove oil or eugenol, were popular for many hundred years in dentistry as antiseptics and local anesthetics. {{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

Use in aromatherapy

{{main|Aromatherapy}}

Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition.[23] Scientific research indicates that essential oils cannot treat or cure any chronic disease or other illnesses.[24] Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards.[25] Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; there has been at least one case of death.[26] As such, the use of essential oils as an alternative medicine should be approached with caution.

Use as pesticide

Research has shown that essential oils have potential as a natural pesticide. In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods.[27] These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth,[28] decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these green pesticides without harmful effects to anything other than pests.[29] Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, and eucalyptus.[30]

Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control,[31] and marketed insect repellants, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness to DEET, which is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency.[27]

In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions.[30] In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as the essential oil market diversifies[29] and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers.[28]

Dilution

Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: "oil-loving") compounds that usually are not miscible with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol.

The most common way to safely dilute essential oils for topical use is in a carrier oil. This can be any vegetable oil readily available, the most popular for skin care being jojoba, coconut, wheat germ, olive and avocado.[32]

==Raw materials==

{{main|List of essential oils}}

Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.

//Bark (botany)">Bark
  • Cassia
  • Cinnamon
  • Sassafras
//Berry">Berries
  • Allspice
  • Juniper
//Flower">Flowers
  • Cannabis
  • Chamomile
  • Clary sage
  • Clove
  • Hops
  • Hyssop
  • Jasmine
  • Lavender
  • Manuka
  • Marjoram
  • Orange
  • Pelargonium (Scented geranium)
  • Plumeria
  • Rose
  • Ylang-ylang
//Leaf">Leaves
  • Basil
  • Bay leaf
  • Buchu
  • Cinnamon
  • Common sage
  • Eucalyptus
  • Guava
  • Lemon grass
  • Melaleuca
  • Oregano
  • Patchouli
  • Peppermint
  • Pine
  • Rosemary
  • Spearmint
  • Tea tree
  • Thyme
  • Tsuga
  • Wintergreen
//Peel (fruit)">Peel
  • Bergamot
  • Grapefruit
  • Lemon
  • Lime
  • Orange
  • Tangerine
//Resin">Resin
  • Benzoin
  • Copaiba
  • Frankincense
  • Labdanum
  • Myrrh
//Rhizome">Rhizome
  • Galangal
  • Ginger
//Root">Roots
  • Valerian
//Seed">Seeds
  • Anise
  • Buchu
  • Celery
  • Cumin
  • Flax
  • Nutmeg oil
//Wood">Woods
  • Agarwood
  • Camphor
  • Cedar
  • Rosewood
  • Sandalwood

Balsam of Peru

Balsam of Peru, an essential oil derived from the Myroxylon, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for healing properties.[33]{{unreliable source?|date= October 2014}} However, a number of national and international surveys have identified Balsam of Peru as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.[34][35][36]

Garlic oil

Garlic oil is an essential oil derived from garlic.[37]

Eucalyptus oil

{{main|Eucalyptus oil}}

Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties.[38] Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly.[39]

Lavender oil

{{main|Lavender oil}}

Lavender oil has long been used in the production of perfume.[40] However, it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular.[41] Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent.[42]

Rose oil

{{main|Rose oil}}

Rose oil is produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia. Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute".

Dangers

The potential danger of an essential oil is sometimes relative to its level or grade of purity, and sometimes related to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or "neat" form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove hepatotoxic.

Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing the skin's vulnerability to sunlight.[43]

Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets (SDS) to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women.

Essential Oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults. [5]

Flammability

The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as a Class 3 Flammable Liquid, as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C.

Gynecomastia

Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by in vitro study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Two published sets of case reports suggest the lavender oil may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys.[44][45] The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed the claims against tea tree oil as implausible, but did not comment on lavender oil.[46] In 2018, a BBC report on a study stated that tea tree and lavender oils contain eight substances that when tested in tissue culture experiments, increasing the level of estrogen and decreasing the level of testosterone. Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils". The study did not include animal or human testing.[47]

Handling

Exposure to essential oils may cause a contact dermatitis.[20][21][22] Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall.

Ingestion

Some essential oils qualify as GRAS flavoring agents for use in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and flavorist standards.[48] Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular.[49] The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 mL, and thus should not be used during pregnancy.{{cn|date=December 2018}}

GRAS Substances According to the FDA[48]
Common NameBotanical Name of Plant Source
AlfalfaMedicago sativa L.
AllspicePimenta officinalis Lindl.
Almont, bitter (pure from prussic acid)Prunnus amygdalus Batsch, Prussun armeniaca L., or Prunnus persica (L.) Batsch.
Ambrette (seed)Hibiscus moschatus Moench.
Angelica rootAngelica archangelica L.
Angelica seedDo.
Angelica stemDo.
Angostura (cusparia bark)Galipea officinalis Hancock.
AnisePimpinella anisum L.
AsafetidaFerula assa-foetida L. and related spp. of Ferula.
Balm (lemon balm)Melissa officinalis L.
Balsam of PeruMyroxylon pereirae Klotzsch.
BasilOcimum basilicum L.
Bay leavesLaurus nobilis L.
Bay (myrcia oil)Pimenta racemosa (Mill.) J. W. Moore.
Bergamot (bergamot orange)Citrus aurantium L. subsp. bergamia Wright et Arn.
Bitter almond (free from prussic acid)Prunus amygdalus Batsch, Prunus armeniaca L., or Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.
Bois de roseAniba rosaeodora Ducke.
CacaoTheobroma cacao L.
Camomile (chamomile) flowers, HungarianMatricaria chamomilla L.
Camomile (chamomile) flowers, Roman or EnglishAnthemis nobilis L.
CanangaCananga odorata Hook. f. and Thoms.
CapsicumCapsicum frutescens L. and Capsicum annuum L.
CarawayCarum carvi L.
Cardamom seed (cardamon)Elettaria cardamomum Maton.
Carob beanCeratonia siliqua L.
CarrotDaucus carota L.
Cascarilla barkCroton eluteria Benn.
Cassia bark, ChineseCinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cassia bark, Padang or BataviaCinnamomum burmanni Blume.
Cassia bark, SaigonCinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Celery seedApium graveolens L.
Cherry, wild, barkPrunus serotina Ehrh.
ChervilAnthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm.
ChicoryCichorium intybus L.
Cinnamon bark, CeylonCinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Cinnamon bark, ChineseCinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon bark, SaigonCinnamomum loureirii Nees.
Cinnamon leaf, CeylonCinnamomum zeylanicum Nees.
Cinnamon leaf, ChineseCinnamomum cassia Blume.
Cinnamon leaf, SaigonCinnamomum loureirii Nees.
CitronellaCymbopogon nardus Rendle.
Citrus peelsCitrus spp.
Clary (clary sage)Salvia sclarea L.
CloverTrifolium spp.
Coca (decocainized)Erythroxylum coca Lam. and other spp. of Erythroxylum.
CoffeeCoffea spp.
Cola nutCola acuminata Schott and Endl., and other spp. of Cola.
CorianderCoriandrum sativum L.
Cumin (cummin)Cuminum cyminum L.
Curacao orange peel (orange, bitter peel)Citrus aurantium L.
Cusparia barkGalipea officinalis Hancock.
DandelionTaraxacum officinale Weber and T. laevigatum DC.
Dandelion rootDo.
Dog grass (quackgrass, triticum)Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv.
Elder flowersSambucus canadensis L. and S. nigra I.
Estragole (esdragol, esdragon, tarragon)Artemisia dracunculus L.
Estragon (tarragon)Do.
Fennel, sweetFoeniculum vulgare Mill.
FenugreekTrigonella foenum-graecum L.
Galanga (galangal)Alpinia officinarum Hance.
GeraniumPelargonium spp.
Geranium, East IndianCymbopogon martini Stapf.
Geranium, rosePelargonium graveolens L'Her.
GingerZingiber officinale Rosc.
GrapefruitCitrus paradisi Macf.
GuavaPsidium spp.
Hickory barkCarya spp.
Horehound (hoarhound)Marrubium vulgare L.
HopsHumulus lupulus L.
HorsemintMonarda punctata L.
HyssopHyssopus officinalis L.
ImmortelleHelichrysum augustifolium DC.
JasmineJasminum officinale L. and other spp. of Jasminum.
Juniper (berries)Juniperus communis L.
Kola nutCola acuminata Schott and Endl., and other spp. of Cola.
Laurel berriesLaurus nobilis L.
Laurel leavesLaurus spp.
LavenderLavandula officinalis Chaix.
Lavender, spikeLavandula latifolia Vill.
LavandinHybrids between Lavandula officinalis Chaix and Lavandula latifolin Vill.
LemonCitrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Lemon balm (see balm)
Lemon grassCymbopogon citratus DC. and Cymbopogon lexuosus Stapf.
Lemon peelCitrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
LimeCitrus aurantifolia Swingle.
Linden flowersTilia spp.
Locust beanCeratonia siliqua L,
LupulinHumulus lupulus L.
MaceMyristica fragrans Houtt.
MandarinCitrus reticulata Blanco.
Marjoram, sweetMajorana hortensis Moench.
MateIlex paraguariensis St. Hil.
Melissa (see balm)
MentholMentha spp.
Menthyl acetateDo.
Molasses (extract)Saccarum officinarum L.
MustardBrassica spp.
NaringinCitrus paradisi Macf.
Neroli, bigaradeCitrus aurantium L.
NutmegMyristica fragrans Houtt.
OnionAllium cepa L.
Orange, bitter, flowersCitrus aurantium L.
Orange, bitter, peelDo.
Orange leafCitrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck.
Orange, sweetDo.
Orange, sweet, flowersDo.
Orange, sweet, peelDo.
OriganumOriganum spp.
PalmarosaCymbopogon martini Stapf.
PaprikaCapsicum annuum L.
ParsleyPetroselinum crispum (Mill.) Mansf.
Pepper, blackPiper nigrum L.
Pepper, whiteDo.
PeppermintMentha piperita L.
Peruvian balsamMyroxylon pereirae Klotzsch.
PetitgrainCitrus aurantium L.
Petitgrain lemonCitrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
Petitgrain mandarin or tangerineCitrus reticulata Blanco.
PimentaPimenta officinalis Lindl.
Pimenta leafPimenta officinalis Lindl.
Pipsissewa leavesChimaphila umbellata Nutt.
PomegranatePunica granatum L.
Prickly ash barkXanthoxylum (or Zanthoxylum) Americanum Mill. or Xanthoxylum clava-herculis L.
Rose absoluteRosa alba L., Rosa centifolia L., Rosa damascena Mill., Rosa gallica L., and vars. of these spp.
Rose (otto of roses, attar of roses)Do.
Rose budsDo.
Rose flowersDo.
Rose fruit (hips)Do.
Rose geraniumPelargonium graveolens L'Her.
Rose leavesRosa spp.
RosemaryRosmarinus officinalis L.
SaffronCrocus sativus L.
SageSalvia officinalis L.
Sage, GreekSalvia triloba L.
Sage, SpanishSalvia lavandulaefolia Vahl.
St. John's breadCeratonia siliqua L.
Savory, summerSatureia hortensis L.
Savory, winterSatureia montana L.
Schinus molleSchinus molle L.
Sloe berries (blackthorn berries)Prunus spinosa L.
SpearmintMentha spicata L.
Spike lavenderLavandula latifolia Vill.
TamarindTamarindus indica L.
TangerineCitrus reticulata Blanco.
TarragonArtemisia dracunculus L.
TeaThea sinensis L.
ThymeThymus vulgaris L. and Thymus zygis var. gracilis Boiss.
Thyme, whiteDo.
Thyme, wild or creepingThymus serpyllum L.
Triticum (see dog grass)
TuberosePolianthes tuberosa L.
TurmericCurcuma longa L.
VanillaVanilla planifolia Andr. or Vanilla tahitensis J. W. Moore.
Violet flowersViola odorata L.
Violet leavesDo.
Violet leaves absoluteDo.
Wild cherry barkPrunus serotina Ehrh.
Ylang-ylangCananga odorata Hook. f. and Thoms.
Zedoary barkCurcuma zedoaria Rosc.

Pesticide residues

There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.[50]

Pregnancy

Certain essential oils are safe to use during pregnancy, but care must be taken when selecting quality and brand.[51] Some essential oils may contain impurities and additives that may be harmful to pregnant women. Sensitivity to certain smells may cause pregnant women to have adverse side effects with essential oil use, such as headache, vertigo, and nausea. Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste,[52] and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea when ingested. Always consult a doctor before use.

Toxicology

The following table lists the {{LD50}} or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions.[53]

Common Name Oral LD50 Dermal LD50 Notes
Neem 14 g/kg >2 g/kg
Lemon myrtle 2.43 g/kg 2.25 g/kg
Frankincense >5 g/kg >5 g/kg Boswellia carterii
Frankincense >2 g/kg >2 g/kg Boswellia sacra
Indian frankincense >2 g/kg >2 g/kg Boswellia serrata
Ylang-ylang >5 g/kg >5 g/kg
Cedarwood >5 g/kg >5 g/kg
Roman chamomile >5 g/kg >5 g/kg
White camphor >5 g/kg >5 g/kg Cinnamomum camphora, extracted from leaves
Yellow camphor 3.73 g/kg >5 g/kg Cinnamomum camphora, extracted from bark
Hot oil 3.80 g/kg >5 g/kg Cinnamomum camphora, oil extracted from leaves
Cassia 2.80 g/kg 0.32 g/kg

Standardization of its derived products

In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized.[54] The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60 [55]

{{Further|British Pharmacopoeia|United States Pharmacopoeia}}

See also

{{Commons category|Essential oils}}{{Wikibooks|Complete Guide to Essential Oils}}
  • Aroma lamp
  • Enfleurage
  • Fragrance oil
  • List of essential oils
  • Tincture
  • Volatility

References

1. ^{{cite book |chapter= essential oil |title= Oxford English Dictionary |edition= online, American English |chapter-url= http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/essential-oil?q=essential+oil |accessdate= 2014-07-21 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140809030553/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/essential-oil?q=essential+oil |archivedate= 2014-08-09 |df= }}
2. ^{{cite journal |pmid=10867060 |url=http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10867060 |year=2000 |author1=Reeds |first1=P. J. |title=Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans |journal=The Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=7 |pages=1835S–40S |doi=10.1093/jn/130.7.1835S }}
3. ^{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Myeong Soo|last2=Choi|first2=Jiae Choi|title=Aromatherapy for health care: an overview of systematic reviews|journal=Maturitas|date=2012|volume=3|issue=71|pages=257–260}}
4. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.3233/JRS-2012-0568 |pmid=22936057 |year=2012 |author1=Posadzki |first1=P |title=Adverse effects of aromatherapy: A systematic review of case reports and case series |journal=The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=147–61 |last2=Alotaibi |first2=A |last3=Ernst |first3=E }}
5. ^1 {{Cite web|url=https://www.poison.org/articles/2014-jun/essential-oils|title=Essential Oils: Poisonous when Misused|website=www.poison.org|language=en|access-date=2017-12-01|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708190814/http://www.poison.org/articles/2014-jun/essential-oils|archivedate=2017-07-08|df=}}
6. ^{{cite book |first= M.Th. |last= Houtsma |title= E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 |volume= 4 |year= 1993 |publisher= Brill |isbn= 978-90-04-09790-2 |pages=1011– }}
7. ^{{cite book |editor1-last=Gilman |editor1-first=A. G. |editor2-last=Rall |editor2-first=T. W. |editor3-last=Nies |editor3-first=Alan S. |editor4-last=Taylor |editor4-first=Palmer |title=Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics |edition=8th |publisher=Pergamon |location=New York |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-08-040296-3|title-link=Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics }} {{page needed|date= October 2014}}
8. ^{{cite book |last1= Klaassen |first1= Curtis D. |last2= Amdur |first2= Mary O. |last3= Casarett |first3= Louis J. |last4= Doull |first4= John |title= Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons |publisher= McGraw-Hill |location= New York |year= 1991 |pages= |isbn= 978-0071052399}}{{page needed|date= October 2014}}
9. ^{{Cite book|title = The Aromatherapy Handbook: The Secret Healing Power Of Essential Oils|last = Ryman|first = Daniele|publisher = Century Publishing CO. Ltd.|year = 1984|isbn = 9780852072158|location = |pages = Chapter 3}}
10. ^{{Cite journal|last=Aizpurua-Olaizola|first=Oier|last2=Ormazabal|first2=Markel|last3=Vallejo|first3=Asier|last4=Olivares|first4=Maitane|last5=Navarro|first5=Patricia|last6=Etxebarria|first6=Nestor|last7=Usobiaga|first7=Aresatz|date=2015-01-01|title=Optimization of supercritical fluid consecutive extractions of fatty acids and polyphenols from Vitis vinifera grape wastes|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=80|issue=1|pages=E101–107|doi=10.1111/1750-3841.12715|issn=1750-3841|pmid=25471637}}
11. ^{{cite book |last1= Forster |first1= P |first2= V |last2= Ramaswamy |first3= P |last3= Artaxo |first4= T |last4= Berntsen |first5= R |last5= Betts |first6= DW |last6= Fahey |first7= J |last7= Haywood |first8= J |last8= Lean |first9= DC |last9= Lowe |first10= G |last10= Myhre |first11= J |last11= Nganga |first12= R |last12= Prinn |first13= G |last13= Raga |first14= M |last14= Schulz |first15= R |last15= Van Dorland |displayauthors= 1 |year= 2007 |chapter= Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing |title= Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change |editor1-last= Solomon |editor1-first= S |editor2-first= D |editor2-last= Qin |editor3-first= M |editor3-last= Manning |editor4-first= Z |editor4-last= Chen |editor5-first= M |editor5-last= Marquis |editor6-first= KB |editor6-last= Averyt |editor7-first= M |editor7-last= Tignor |editor8-first= HL |editor8-last= Miller |display-editors= 1 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |chapterurl= http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100724041021/http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter2.pdf |archivedate= 2010-07-24 |df= }}
12. ^{{citation |title= Refrigerant 1234YF's Potential Impact in Automotive Applications |postscript=}}{{full citation needed|date=January 2016}}
13. ^{{cite web |url= http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/971087/ISO_TC_054__Essential_oils_.pdf |title= ISO TC 54 Business Plan – Essential oils | accessdate= 2006-09-14}} It is unclear from the source what period of time the quoted figures include.
14. ^1 {{cite book |last= Sapeika |first= Norman |title= Actions and Uses of Drugs |publisher= A.A. Balkema |year= 1963}}{{page needed|date= October 2014}}
15. ^{{citation |last= Haneke |first= Karen E |title= Turpentine (Turpentine Oil, Wood Turpentine, Sulfate Turpentine, Sulfite Turpentine) [8006-64-2]: Review of Toxicological Literature |url= http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/chem_background/exsumpdf/turpentine_508.pdf |date= February 2002 |publisher= National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences |issue= Contract No. N01–ES–65402 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20141006105607/http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/chem_background/exsumpdf/turpentine_508.pdf |archivedate= 2014-10-06 |df= }}{{page needed|date= October 2014}}
16. ^{{cite book |last1= Watt |first1= John Mitchell |last2= Breyer-Brandwijk |first2= Maria Gerdina |title= The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa |edition= 2nd |publisher= E & S Livingstone |location= Edinburgh |year= 1962}}{{page needed|date= October 2014}}
17. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.3201/eid0707.017705 |pmid=11485643 |pmc=2631814 |title=Antibacterial Household Products: Cause for Concern |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=512–5 |year=2001 |last1=Levy |first1=Stuart B. }}
18. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ptr.951 |pmid=12410554 |title=Studies on essential oils: Part 10; Antibacterial activity of volatile oils of some spices |journal=Phytotherapy Research |volume=16 |issue=7 |pages=680–2 |year=2002 |last1=Singh |first1=G. |last2=Kapoor |first2=I. P. S. |last3=Pandey |first3=S. K. |last4=Singh |first4=U. K. |last5=Singh |first5=R. K. }}
19. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/DER.0b013e31823e202d |pmid=22653070 |title=Tea Tree Oil |journal=Dermatitis |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=48–9 |year=2012 |last1=Larson |first1=David |last2=Jacob |first2=Sharon E. }}
20. ^1 {{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01275.x |pmid=18416758 |title=Occupational contact dermatitis due to essential oils |journal=Contact Dermatitis |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=282–4 |year=2008 |last1=Trattner |first1=Akiva |last2=David |first2=Michael |last3=Lazarov |first3=Aneta }}
21. ^1 {{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.1440-0960.2002.00598.x |pmid=12121401 |title=Allergic contact dermatitis following exposure to essential oils |journal=Australasian Journal of Dermatology |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=211–3 |year=2002 |last1=Bleasel |first1=Narelle |last2=Tate |first2=Bruce |last3=Rademaker |first3=Marius }}
22. ^1 {{cite journal |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0536.2000.043001041.x |pmid=10902588 |title=Short Communications |journal=Contact Dermatitis |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=41–2 |year=2000 |author1=Isaksson |first1=M |last2=Brandão |first2=F. M. |last3=Bruze |first3=M |last4=Goossens |first4=A }}
23. ^{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Myeong Soo|last2=Choi|first2=Jiae Choi|title=Aromatherapy for health care: an overview of systematic reviews|journal=Maturitas|date=2012|volume=3|issue=71|pages=257–260}}
24. ^{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Myeong Soo|last2=Choi|first2=Jiae|title=Aromatherapy for health care: an overview of systematic reviews|journal=Maturitas|date=2012|volume=3|issue=71|pages=257–260}}
25. ^{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Myeong Soo|last2=Choi|first2=Jiae Choi|title=Aromatherapy for health care: an overview of systematic reviews|journal=Maturitas|date=2012|volume=3|issue=71|pages=257–260}}
26. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.3233/JRS-2012-0568 |pmid=22936057 |year=2012 |author1=Posadzki |first1=P |title=Adverse effects of aromatherapy: A systematic review of case reports and case series |journal=The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=147–61 |last2=Alotaibi |first2=A |last3=Ernst |first3=E }}
27. ^1 {{Cite journal|date=2010-01-01|title=Repellent activity of essential oils: A review|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960852409009468|journal=Bioresource Technology|language=en|volume=101|issue=1|pages=372–378|doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.048|pmid=19729299|issn=0960-8524|last1=Nerio|first1=Luz Stella|last2=Olivero-Verbel|first2=Jesus|last3=Stashenko|first3=Elena}}
28. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Regnault-Roger|first=Catherine|last2=Vincent|first2=Charles|last3=Arnason|first3=John Thor|date=2012|title=Essential Oils in Insect Control: Low-Risk Products in a High-Stakes World|journal=Annual Review of Entomology|volume=57|issue=1|pages=405–424|doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554|pmid=21942843}}
29. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Regnault-Roger|first=Catherine|date=1997-02-01|title=The potential of botanical essential oils for insect pest control|journal=Integrated Pest Management Reviews|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=25–34|doi=10.1023/A:1018472227889|issn=1353-5226}}
30. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Koul|first=Opender|date=2008|title=Essential Oils as Green Pesticides: Potential and Constraints|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3a75/a6af90457b4ca851f06db8d0f26c99a00ff3.pdf|journal=Biopestic Int|volume=|pages=63–84|via=Semantic Scholar}}
31. ^{{Cite journal|date=2000-09-12|title=Plant essential oils for pest and disease management|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S026121940000079X|journal=Crop Protection|language=en|volume=19|issue=8–10|pages=603–608|doi=10.1016/S0261-2194(00)00079-X|issn=0261-2194|last1=Isman|first1=Murray B}}
32. ^{{cite web |url=https://charcoaloil.com/collections/carrier-oils |title=Carrier Oils |accessdate=2017-10-03 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171004040041/https://charcoaloil.com/collections/carrier-oils |archivedate=2017-10-04 |df= }}
33. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.hippylife.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=84&Itemid=31 |title= Balsam, Peru |website= www.hippylife.co.uk |publisher= Hippylife |accessdate= 2006-08-17 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20071008045925/http://www.hippylife.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=84&Itemid=31 |archivedate= 2007-10-08 |df= }}
34. ^{{cite book |title= Biocompatibility of Dental Materials |chapter= Diagnosis of Side Effects of Dental Materials, with Special Emphasis on Delayed and Immediate Allergic Reactions |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mrreTHuo54wC&pg=PA352 |first1= D |last1= Arenholt-Bindslev |first2= R |last2= Jolanki |first3= L |last3= Kanerva |editor-first1= Gottfried |editor-last1= Schmalz |editor-first2= Dorthe |editor-last2= Arenholt-Bindslev |publisher= Springer |year= 2008 |page= 352 |accessdate= March 5, 2014 |isbn= 9783540777823 |doi= 10.1007/978-3-540-77782-3_14 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160518233136/https://books.google.com/books?id=mrreTHuo54wC&pg=PA352 |archivedate= May 18, 2016 |df= }}
35. ^{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/?id=kDWlWR5UbqQC&pg=PT530&dq=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy |title= Clinical Dermatology |first= Thomas P. |last= Habif |publisher= Elsevier Health Sciences |year= 2009 |accessdate= March 6, 2014 |isbn= 9780323080378 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140629070414/http://books.google.com/books?id=kDWlWR5UbqQC&pg=PT530&dq=%22balsam+of+peru%22+allergy&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UGoXU_CfL5TLkAelvYCQCg&ved=0CIIBEOgBMAw |archivedate= June 29, 2014 |df= }}
36. ^{{cite book |title= Conn's Current Therapy 2014: Expert Consult |chapter= Contact Dermatitis |last1= Yiannias |first1= JA |editor-first1= Edward T. |editor-last1= Bope |editor-first2= Rick D. |editor-last2= Kellerman |publisher= Elsevier Health Sciences |year= 2013 |chapterurl= https://books.google.com/books?id=fmwYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT264 |isbn= 9780323225724 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160505014241/https://books.google.com/books?id=fmwYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT264 |archive-date=2016-05-05 |df= }}
37. ^{{cite book | last=Linskens | first=H.F. | last2=Adams | first2=R.P. | last3=Crespo | first3=M.E. | last4=Jackson | first4=J.F. | last5=Deans | first5=S.G. | last6=Dobson | first6=H.E.M. | last7=Dunlop | first7=P. | last8=Erdelmeier | first8=C.A.J. | last9=Ghosh | first9=A. | last10=Hammond | first10=E.G. | title=Essential Oils and Waxes | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | series=Molecular Methods of Plant Analysis | year=2012 | isbn=978-3-642-84023-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKz1CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 | access-date=December 29, 2017 | page=105}}
38. ^{{cite journal |title=Eucalyptus essential oil as a natural pesticide |first=Daizy R. |last=Batish |first2=Harminder Pal |last2=Singh |first3=Ravinder Kumar |last3=Kohlia |first4=Shalinder |last4=Kaur |journal=Forest Ecology and Management |volume=256 |issue=12 |date=10 December 2008 |pages=2166–2174 |doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2008.08.008 }}
39. ^{{cite book |title= Thorpe's Dictionary of Applied Chemistry |volume= 8 |edition= 4th |publisher= Longmans Green |year= 1947}}{{page needed|date= October 2014}}
40. ^N. Groom. New Perfume Handbook. Springer Science & Business Media, 1997 {{ISBN|9780751404036}}, pp. 184-186
41. ^{{cite journal|date=2007|title=Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils|url=|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=356|issue=5|pages=479–485|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725|pmid=17267908|via=|last1=Henley|first1=Derek V|last2=Lipson|first2=Natasha|last3=Korach|first3=Kenneth S|last4=Bloch|first4=Clifford A}}
42. ^{{cite book | title=Insect Repellents Handbook | editor1=Debboun, Mustapha | editor2=Frances, Stephen P. | editor3=Strickman, Daniel | publisher=CRC Press | year=2014 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-1466553552 | page=362}}
43. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1067/mjd.2001.116226 |pmid=11511848 |title=Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=458–61 |year=2001 |last1=Kaddu |first1=Steven |last2=Kerl |first2=Helmut |last3=Wolf |first3=Peter }}
44. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa064725 |pmid=17267908 |title=Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=356 |issue=5 |pages=479–85 |year=2007 |last1=Henley |first1=Derek V. |last2=Lipson |first2=Natasha |last3=Korach |first3=Kenneth S. |last4=Bloch |first4=Clifford A. }}
45. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Diaz A, Luque L, Badar Z, Kornic S, Danon M |title=Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: report of three cases |journal=J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=103–107 |date=2016 |pmid=26353172 |doi=10.1515/jpem-2015-0248 |url=}}
46. ^{{citation |author= Scientific Committee on Consumer Products |title= Opinion on tea tree oil |issue= Report No. SCCP/1155/08 |date= December 16, 2008 |url= http://ec.europa.eu/health/archive/ph_risk/committees/04_sccp/docs/sccp_o_160.pdf |publisher= Directorate-General for Health and Consumers: European Commission: European Union |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20140912054708/http://ec.europa.eu/health/archive/ph_risk/committees/04_sccp/docs/sccp_o_160.pdf |archivedate=September 12, 2014}}
47. ^{{Cite news|title=More evidence essential oils 'make male breasts develop'|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-43429933|publisher=BBC|accessdate=18 March 2018|date=18 March 2018|quote=A suspected link between abnormal breast growth in young boys and the use of lavender and tea tree oils has been given new weight, after a study found eight chemicals contained in the oils interfere with hormones.|work=BBC News}}
48. ^1 {{Cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=182.20|title=CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21|website=www.accessdata.fda.gov|access-date=2018-12-08}} {{PD-notice}}
49. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/104063879801000223 |pmid=9576358 |title=Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats |journal=Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=208–10 |year=1998 |last1=Bischoff |first1=K. |last2=Guale |first2=Fessesswork }}
50. ^{{cite book |last= Menary |first= RC |title= Minimising pesticide residues in essential oils |year= 2008 |publisher= Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation |isbn= 9781741517095}}{{page needed|date= October 2014}}
51. ^{{Cite journal|date=2013|title=Management of severe nausea and vomiting in pregnant women|journal=Clinical Pharmacist|doi=10.1211/cp.2013.11131205|issn=2053-6178}}
52. ^{{cite journal|last1=Nordin|first1=S.|last2=Broman|first2=D. A.|last3=Olofsson|first3=J. K.|last4=Wulff|first4=M|year=2004|title=A Longitudinal Descriptive Study of Self-reported Abnormal Smell and Taste Perception in Pregnant Women|journal=Chemical Senses|volume=29|issue=5|pages=391–402|doi=10.1093/chemse/bjh040|pmid=15201206}}
53. ^{{Cite journal |url= http://www.zenitech.com/documents/Toxicity_of_essential_oils_p1.pdf |title= Toxicology of essential oils reviewed |date= September 2009 |journal= Personal Care |first= AC |last= Dweck |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110718152502/http://www.zenitech.com/documents/Toxicity_of_essential_oils_p1.pdf |archivedate= 2011-07-18 |df= }}
54. ^{{cite web |author= International Organization for Standardization |author-link= International Organization for Standardization |title= ISO 4720:2002 Essential oils – Nomenclature |url= http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?ics1=01&ics2=040&ics3=71&csnumber=30435 |accessdate= April 23, 2009 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606174307/http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?ics1=01&ics2=040&ics3=71&csnumber=30435 |archivedate= June 6, 2011 |df= }}
55. ^{{cite web |author= International Organization for Standardization |author-link= International Organization for Standardization |title= 71.100.60: Essential oils |url= http://www.iso.org/iso/products/standards/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=71&ICS2=100&ICS3=60& |accessdate= June 14, 2009 |deadurl= no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20110606185151/http://www.iso.org/iso/products/standards/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=71&ICS2=100&ICS3=60& |archivedate= June 6, 2011 |df= }}

Further reading

  • {{cite book

| author=Baser, K.H.C.
| author2=G. Buchbauer
| last-author-amp=yes
| title=Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology and Applications
| publisher=CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York
| year=2010
| isbn= 978-1-4200-6315-8
}}
  • {{cite book

| author=Schnaubelt, Kurt
| title=Advanced Aromatherapy: The Science of Essential Oil Therapy
| publisher=Healing Arts Press
| year=1999
| isbn= 978-0-89281-743-6
}}
  • {{cite book

| author=Sellar, Wanda
| title=The Directory of Essential Oils
| location=Essex
| publisher=The C.W. Daniel Company, Ltd.
| edition=Reprint
| year=2001
| isbn= 978-0-85207-346-9
}}
  • {{cite book

| author=Tisserand, Robert
| title=Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals
| publisher=Churchill Livingstone
| year=1995
| isbn= 978-0-443-05260-6
}}{{Authority control}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Essential Oil}}

1 : Essential oils
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/12 20:27:29