| 词条 | Special Organization (Ottoman Empire) |
| 释义 |
The Special Organization ({{lang-ota|تشکیلات مخصوصه}}, Teşkilât-ı Mahsusa) was an Ottoman imperial government special forces unit under the War Department and was allegedly used to suppress Arab separatism and Western imperialism in the Ottoman Empire.[1] Many members of this organization also played leading roles in the first world war. The main aim of the Special Organization was to re-open the Ottoman parliament. The members of the organization also participated in the resistance against Italians in Libya.[2] It was the progenitor of the National Security Service ({{lang-tr|Milli Emniyet Hizmeti}}) of the Republic of Turkey, which was itself the predecessor of the modern National Intelligence Organization ({{lang-tr|Milli İstihbarat Teşkilatı}}, MİT). Activities (1913–1918){{See also|List of members of the Special Organization of the Ottoman Empire}}The exact date of establishment is unclear or disputed. According to some researchers, the organization might have been established by Enver Pasha, who placed Süleyman Askeri in charge of the organization on 17 November 1913.[3][4] Its establishment date is rather vague since it was really a continuation of various smaller groups established by Enver Pasa and friends in the aftermath of 1908 Young Turk Revolution[4]. Enver Pasha assumed the primary role in the direction of the Special Organization and its center of administration moved to Erzurum.[5] Many members of this organization who had played particular roles in the first world war also participated in the Turkish national movement.[6] The Special Organization assisted by government and army officials, deported all Greek men of military age to labor brigades beginning in summer 1914 and lasting through 1916.[7]The first leader was Süleyman Askeri Bey. After his death, he was replaced by Ali Bach Hamba on 14 April 1915, who held the post until the Armistice of Mudros.[4] During World War I Eşref Sencer Kuşçubası was allegedly the director of operations in Arabia, the Sinai, and North Africa[8]. He was captured at Yemen in early 1917 by the British military and was a POW in Malta until 1920 and subsequently released in exchange for British POW.[9] Ahmet Efe says military archives have detailed information about the organization's personnel. He says Kuşçubası is not mentioned.[9] The last director, Hüsamettin Ertürk, later worked as an agent in Istanbul of the Ankara government following the Armistice.[10] He also wrote a memoir called İki Devrin Perde Arkası (Behind the Scenes of Two Eras).[11] This list includes allegedly notable members, according to an interview with its purported former leader Eşref Kuşçubaşı by U.S. INR officer Philip H. Stoddard:[3][12] Although the bulk of its 30,000 members were drawn from trained specialists such as doctors, engineers, and journalists, the organization also employed criminals denoted başıbozuk, who had been released from prison in 1913 by amnesty.[3][13]DisbandingThe organization was dismantled following a parliamentary debate and replaced by the Worldwide Islamic Revolt ({{lang-tr|Umûm Âlem-i İslâm İhtilâl Teşkilâtı}}) after World War I. This organization held its first meeting in Berlin. However, it was forced underground by the British, who refused to let these German allies operate.[13] In 1921, Atatürk founded another secret organization called the National Defense Society ({{lang-tr|Müdafaa-i Milliye Cemiyeti}}), headed by the former chief of the Special Organization, Hüsamettin Ertürk.[13] Kuşçubaşı controversyStoddard's book has been criticized by historian Ahmet Efe. He has recently released a book of his own, based on archival research. Efe says that, for example, Kuşçubaşı's own history is inaccurate; he is said to be a graduate of Kuleli Military High School, and Harbiye. The former claim is not established, and the latter is refuted, therefore Kuşçubaşı is not a soldier of any rank. The archives of the Ministry of Defense and the Army Command have no record of Kuşçubaşı.[9] Efe says that Chief of Staff intelligence reports write that Kuşçubaşı was a mole for the Greeks and the British. He was the 60th person among the 150 personae non gratae of Turkey.[14] Kuşçubaşı is instead said to be the leader of the Anatolia Ottoman Revolution Committee ({{lang-tr|Anadolu Osmanlı İhtilâl Komitesi}}) which, with the help of British and Greek intelligence, repeatedly attempted to assassinate Atatürk. Kuşçubaşı's brother, Hacı Sami, also took part in a 1927 attempt.[15] See also
References1. ^{{cite news |url = http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-597142 |accessdate = 2008-10-15 |title = MIT, 'Turkey's CIA,' celebrates 80th anniversary |work = Turkish Daily News |date = 2007-01-07 |quote = ...the new intelligence agency of the republic was in fact the continuation of the Ottoman Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa (Special Organization) |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://archive.is/20130113195356/http://arama.hurriyet.com.tr/arsivnews.aspx?id=-597142 |archivedate = 2013-01-13 |df = }} 2. ^{{cite news|url=http://yenisafak.com.tr/diziler/teskilat/index.html|accessdate=2010-09-03|title=Elli devletin temelinde TEŞKİLAT'IN HARCI VAR|work=Yeni Şafak|date=2005-11-14}} 3. ^1 2 {{cite journal|url=http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=20339 |accessdate=2008-09-05 |date=1995-11-11 |title=Cumhuriyeti Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa kurdu |volume=49 |author=Eren, M. Ali |language=Turkish |journal=Aksiyon |publisher=Feza Gazetecilik A.Ş |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070823164219/http://www.aksiyon.com.tr/detay.php?id=20339 |archivedate=August 23, 2007 }} 4. ^"Teskilat-i Mahsusa" Philip H. Stoddard (translated by Tansel Demirel), 1993, Arma Yayinlari, Istanbul, pp. 49-54. 5. ^Enver Paşa, Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa'nın yönetilip yönlendirilmesinde birinci derecede rol üstlenmişti., Recep Maraşlı, Ermeni Ulusal Demokratik Hareketi ve 1915 Soykırımı, Pêrî Yayınları, 2008, {{ISBN|978-975-9010-68-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?ei=rhsUTo2KCLHRmAXXxcS5DQ&ct=result&id=X4hJAQAAIAAJ&dq=%22Te%C5%9Fkilat-%C4%B1+Mahsusa%22+%22Ermeni%22&q=%22Te%C5%9Fkilat-%C4%B1+Mahsusa%22#search_anchor p. 252.] {{Tr icon}} 6. ^Taner Akçam, Türk Ulusal Kimliği, İletişim Yayınları, 1992, {{ISBN|9789754702897}} [https://books.google.com/books?ei=rhsUTo2KCLHRmAXXxcS5DQ&ct=result&id=TjwaAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22Te%C5%9Fkilat-%C4%B1+Mahsusa%22+%22Ermeni%22&q=%22Ermeni+k%C4%B1r%C4%B1m%C4%B1nda+belli+roller+oynam%C4%B1%C5%9F%22#search_anchor p. 155.] 7. ^Isabel V. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany, Cornell University Press, 2006, IBN 9780801472930, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pF9Cxo0f_1QC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Absolute+Destruction:+Military+Culture+and+the+Practices+of+War+in+Imperial+Germany&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=eCQUTtHvBOXxmAWnv8SdDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false p. 273.] 8. ^"Teskilat-i Mahsusa" Philip H. Stoddard (translated by Tansel Demirel), 1993, Arma Yayinlari, Istanbul. 9. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/12/17/haber,C80551BA35D54C84AC2338CCF411104D.html|accessdate=2008-12-27|title=Türk istihbaratının kurucusu bir vatan haini miydi?|date=2007-12-17|work=Sabah|first=Ecevit|last=Kılıç|language=Turkish}} 10. ^{{cite journal|title=2 Devrin Perde Arkası|language=Turkish|first=Niyazi|last=Berkes|journal=Oriens|publisher=BRILL|volume=12|issue=1/2|date=1959-12-31|pages=202–202|doi=10.2307/1580200}} 11. ^{{cite news |url = http://taraf.com.tr/haber.asp?id=16668 |accessdate = 2008-09-13 |title = Yakup Cemil: Devlet içinde devlet olan adam |date = 2008-09-13 |work = Taraf |language = Turkish |first = Öner |last = Özbek |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080913231901/http://www.taraf.com.tr/haber.asp?id=16668 |archivedate = 2008-09-13 |df = }} 12. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2Fg42KYia4C&pg=PA126&lpg=PA126&dq=Philip+Stoddard+Bureau+of+Intelligence+and+Research&source=web&ots=NQghXiSLoE&sig=XWNh0DiMnLy04K6MYyspAF68P_U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result|accessdate=2008-12-21|title=The October War: A Retrospective|quote=I'm Phil Stoddard, who, at the time, was the deputy director of INR's Near East-South Asia Office.|page=126|year=2001|isbn=0-8130-1853-6|publisher=University Press of Florida|author=Parker, Richard Bordeaux}} 13. ^1 2 {{cite book|chapterurl=http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/law/2006-0803-203021/Bovenkerk_04_OC_Turkey.pdf|title=Organized Crime in Europe: Concepts, Patterns and Control Policies in the European Union and Beyond|editor=Cyrille Fijnaut, Letizia Paoli|publisher = Springer|year=2004|isbn=1-4020-2615-3|chapter=The Turkish Mafia and the State|author=Bovenkerk, Frank |author2=Yeşilgöz, Yücel|url=https://www.springer.com/social+sciences/criminology/book/978-0-387-09710-7|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-2765-9|pages=594–5}} 14. ^{{cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/12/17/haber,BF2458F5FAC94ADBB10973D3CE3F6572.html|accessdate=2008-12-27|title=Onun da yolu Susurluk'tan geçmiş|date=2007-12-17|work=Sabah|first=Ecevit|last=Kılıç|language=Turkish}} 15. ^{{cite news|url=http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/12/17/haber,899057E0A7F946B0B01B1088F6084243.html|accessdate=2008-12-27|title=Suikast örgütünün kurucusu|date=2007-12-16|work=Sabah|first=Ecevit|last=Kılıç|language=Turkish}} Bibliography
7 : Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)|World War I crimes by the Ottoman Empire|Defunct organizations based in Turkey|Defunct intelligence agencies|Secret police|Armenian Genocide|Greek genocide |
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