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词条 Specific modulus
释义

  1. Applications

      Specific stiffness in tension    Specific stiffness in buckling and bending    Beam with fixed dimensions; goal is weight reduction    Beam with fixed weight; goal is increased stiffness    Beam's cross-sectional area increases in two dimensions    Beam's cross-sectional area increases in one dimension    Stiffness versus strength in bending  

  2. Approximate specific stiffness for various materials

  3. See also

  4. References

Specific modulus is a materials property consisting of the elastic modulus per mass density of a material. It is also known as the stiffness to weight ratio or specific stiffness. High specific modulus materials find wide application in aerospace applications where minimum structural weight is required. The dimensional analysis yields units of distance squared per time squared.

The utility of specific modulus is to find materials which will produce structures with minimum weight, when the primary design limitation is deflection or physical deformation, rather than load at breaking—this is also known as a "stiffness-driven" structure. Many common structures are stiffness-driven over much of their use, such as airplane wings, bridges, masts, and bicycle frames.

To emphasize the point, consider the issue of choosing a material for building an airplane. Aluminum seems obvious because it is "lighter" than steel, but steel is stronger than aluminum, so one could imagine using thinner steel components to save weight without sacrificing (tensile) strength. The problem with this idea is that there would be a significant sacrifice of stiffness, allowing, e.g., wings to flex unacceptably. Because it is stiffness, not tensile strength, that drives this kind of decision for airplanes, we say that they are stiffness-driven.

The connection details of such structures may be more sensitive to strength (rather than stiffness) issues due to effects of stress risers.

Specific modulus is not to be confused with specific strength, a term that compares strength to density.

Applications

Specific stiffness in tension

The use of specific stiffness in tension applications is straightforward. Both stiffness in tension and total mass for a given length are directly proportional to cross-sectional area. Thus performance of a beam in tension will depend on Young's modulus divided by density.

Specific stiffness in buckling and bending

Specific stiffness can be used in the design of beams subject to bending or Euler buckling, since bending and buckling are stiffness-driven. However, the role that density plays changes depending on the problem's constraints.

Beam with fixed dimensions; goal is weight reduction

Examining the formulas for buckling and deflection, we see that the force required to achieve a given deflection or to achieve buckling depends directly on Young's modulus.

Examining the density formula, we see that the mass of a beam depends directly on the density.

Thus if a beam's cross-sectional dimensions are constrained and weight reduction is the primary goal, performance of the beam will depend on Young's modulus divided by density.

Beam with fixed weight; goal is increased stiffness

By contrast, if a beam's weight is fixed, its cross-sectional dimensions are unconstrained, and increased stiffness is the primary goal, the performance of the beam will depend on Young's modulus divided by either density squared or cubed. This is because a beam's overall stiffness, and thus its resistance to Euler buckling when subjected to an axial load and to deflection when subjected to a bending moment, is directly proportional to both the Young's modulus of the beam's material and the second moment of area (area moment of inertia) of the beam.

Comparing the list of area moments of inertia with formulas for area gives the appropriate relationship for beams of various configurations.

Beam's cross-sectional area increases in two dimensions

Consider a beam whose cross-sectional area increases in two dimensions, e.g. a solid round beam or a solid square beam.

By combining the area and density formulas, we can see that the radius of this beam will vary with approximately the inverse of the square of the density for a given mass.

By examining the formulas for area moment of inertia, we can see that the stiffness of this beam will vary approximately as the fourth power of the radius.

Thus the second moment of area will vary approximately as the inverse of the density squared, and performance of the beam will depend on Young's modulus divided by density squared.

Beam's cross-sectional area increases in one dimension

Consider a beam whose cross-sectional area increases in one dimension, e.g. a thin-walled round beam or a rectangular beam whose height but not width is varied.

By combining the area and density formulas, we can see that the radius or height of this beam will vary with approximately the inverse of the density for a given mass.

By examining the formulas for area moment of inertia, we can see that the stiffness of this beam will vary approximately as the third power of the radius or height.

Thus the second moment of area will vary approximately as the inverse of the cube of the density, and performance of the beam will depend on Young's modulus divided by density cubed.

However, caution must be exercised in using this metric. Thin-walled beams are ultimately limited by local buckling and lateral-torsional buckling. These buckling modes depend on material properties other than stiffness and density, so the stiffness-over-density-cubed metric is at best a starting point for analysis. For example, most wood species score better than most metals on this metric, but many metals can be formed into useful beams with much thinner walls than could be achieved with wood, given wood's greater vulnerability to local buckling. The performance of thin-walled beams can also be greatly modified by relatively minor variations in geometry such as flanges and stiffeners.[1][2][3]

Stiffness versus strength in bending

Note that the ultimate strength of a beam in bending depends on the ultimate strength of its material and its section modulus, not its stiffness and second moment of area. Its deflection, however, and thus its resistance to Euler buckling, will depend on these two latter values.

Approximate specific stiffness for various materials

Approximate specific stiffness for various materials. No attempt is made to correct for materials whose stiffness varies with their density.
Material Young's modulus in GPa Density in g/cm3 Young's modulus over density in 106 m2s−2 (Specific Stiffness) Young's modulus over density squared in 103 m5kg−1s−2 Young's modulus over density cubed in m8kg−2s−2
Rubber (small strain)0.055}}±0.0451.055}}±0.145[4]0.059}}±0.0510.06345}}±0.056550.0679}}±0.0621
Low-density polyethylene0.2}}0.925}}±0.0150.215}}±0.0050.235}}±0.0050.255}}±0.015
PTFE (Teflon)0.5}}2.2}}0.23}}0.10}}0.047}}
HDPE0.8}}0.95}}[5]0.84}}0.89}}0.93}}
Polypropylene [6]1.2}}±0.30.9}}1.33}}±0.331.48}}±0.371.65}}±0.41
Polyethylene terephthalate2.35}}±0.351.4125}}±0.04251.7}}±0.31.17}}±0.230.875}}±0.225
Nylon3.0}}±1.01.15}}2.6}}±0.92.25}}±0.751.95}}±0.65
Polystyrene3.25}}±0.251.05}}3.1}}±0.22.95}}±0.252.8}}±0.2
Biaxially-oriented Polypropylene[6]3.2}}±1.00.9}}3.56}}±1.113.95}}±1.234.39}}±1.37
Medium-density fibreboard4}}0.75}}[7]5.3}}7.1}}9.5}}
Zinc (Zn)108}}7.14}}15}}2.1}}0.29}}
Copper (Cu)117}}8.94}}13}}1.5}}0.16}}
Brass and bronze112.5}}±12.58.565}}±0.16513.0}}±2.01.55}}±0.250.18}}±0.03
Oak wood (along grain)11}}0.76}}±0.17[8]15.5}}±3.522.5}}±9.534.0}}±20.0
Concrete (under compression)40}}±102.4}}17}}±46.95}}±1.752.9}}±0.7
Average lightweight Balsa[9]2.3}}0.11}}21}}190}}1700}}
"Unreal Stiff" lightweight Balsa[10][11][9]1.67}}0.08}}21}}260}}3200}}
Tungsten (W)400}}19.25}}21}}1.1}}0.056}}
Osmium (Os)550}}22.59}}24}}1.1}}0.048}}
Wrought iron200}}±107.7}}±0.226}}±23.35}}±0.350.445}}±0.055
Glass-reinforced plastic[12][13][14]31.65}}±14.451.8}}18}}±89.65}}±4.355.4}}±2.5
Pine wood8.963}}0.505}}±0.155[8]20}}±647}}±26120}}±89
Sitka spruce green[15][16][17]8.7}}±0.70.37}}23.5}}±264}}±5172}}±13
Steel200}}7.9}}±0.1525}}±0.53.2}}±0.10.41}}±0.02
Magnesium metal (Mg)45}}1.738}}26}}15}}8.6}}
Macor machineable glass-ceramic[18]66.9}}2.52}}26.55}}10.53}}8.14}}
Aluminium69}}2.7}}26}}9.5}}3.5}}
Titanium alloys112.5}}±7.54.5}}25}}±25.55}}±0.351.23}}±0.08
Sitka spruce dry[15][16][17]10.4}}±0.80.4}}26}}±265}}±5162}}±12
Tooth enamel (largely calcium phosphate)83}}2.8}}[19]30}}11}}3.8}}
E-Glass fiber[20][21]81}}2.62}}31}}12}}4.5}}
Molybdenum (Mo)329}}10.28}}32}}3.1}}0.30}}
Basalt fiber89}}2.7}}33}}12}}4.5}}
S-Glass fiber[20][22]89}}2.5}}36}}14}}5.7}}
Glass70}}±202.6}}±0.2[23]28}}±1011.2}}±4.84.4}}±2.1
single-crystal Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)200}}5.17}}[24]39}}7.5}}1.4}}
Tungsten carbide (WC)550}}±10015.8}}34.5}}±6.52.2}}±0.40.135}}±0.025
Flax fiber[25][26][27][28]45}}±341.35}}±0.1536.65}}±29.3530}}±2525}}±21
Jute fiber (tension)[29]55.5}}1.3}}42.7}}32.8}}25.3}}
Kevlar 29[30] (tensile only[31])70.5}}1.44}}49}}34}}24}}
Dyneema SK25 Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (tensile only)[32]52}}0.97}}54}}55}}57}}
Kevlar 49[30] (tensile only[31])112.4}}1.44}}78}}54}}38}}
Silicon[33]185}}2.329}}79}}34}}15}}
Alumina fiber (Al2O3)[34][35][22]300}}3.595}}±0.31584}}±724}}±46.76}}±1.74
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (70/30 fibre/matrix, unidirectional, along grain)[36]181}}1.6}}113}}71}}44}}
Dyneema SK78/Honeywell Spectra 2000 Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (tensile only)[32][37]121}}±110.97}}125}}±11128}}±12132}}±12
Silicon carbide (SiC)450}}3.21}}140}}44}}14}}
Beryllium (Be)287}}1.85}}155}}84}}45}}
Boron fiber[38]400}}2.54}}157}}62}}24}}
Diamond (C)1220}}3.53}}347}}98}}28}}
Dupont E130 carbon fiber[39]896}}2.15}}417}}194}}90}}
Approximate (to 6 significant digits) specific stiffness for various species of wood[40]
Species Young's modulus in GPa Density in g/cm3 Young's modulus over density in 106 m2s−2 (Specific Stiffness) Young's modulus over density squared in 103 m5kg−1s−2 Young's modulus over density cubed in m8kg−2s−2
Applewood or wild apple (Pyrus malus )8.76715}}0.745 }}11.768}}15.7959}}21.2026}}
Ash, black (Fraxinus nigra )11.0423}}0.526 }}20.9929}}39.9105}}75.8755}}
Ash, blue (quadrangulata )9.64974}}0.603 }}16.0029}}26.5388}}44.0113}}
Ash, green (Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata )11.4738}}0.610 }}18.8095}}30.8352}}50.5495}}
Ash, white (Fraxinus americana )12.2485}}0.638 }}19.1983}}30.0914}}47.1651}}
Aspen (Populus tremuloides )8.21797}}0.401 }}20.4937}}51.1065}}127.448}}
Aspen, large tooth (PopuIus grandidentata )9.76742}}0.412 }}23.7073}}57.5421}}139.665}}
Basswood (Tilia glabra or Tilia americanus )10.091}}0.398 }}25.3544}}63.7045}}160.061}}
Beech (Fagus grandifolia or Fagus americana )11.5718}}0.655 }}17.6669}}26.9724}}41.1793}}
Beech, blue (Carpinus caroliniana )7.3746}}0.717 }}10.2854}}14.345}}20.007}}
Birch, gray (Betula populifolia )7.8159}}0.552 }}14.1592}}25.6508}}46.4688}}
Birch, paper (Betula papyrifera )10.9736}}0.600 }}18.2894}}30.4823}}50.8039}}
Birch, sweet (Betula lenta )14.9061}}0.714 }}20.8769}}29.2394}}40.9515}}
Buckeye, yellow (Aesculus octandra )8.12971}}0.383 }}21.2264}}55.4214}}144.703}}
Butternut (Juglans cinerea )8.13952}}0.404 }}20.1473}}49.8696}}123.44}}
Cedar, eastern red (Juniperus virginiana )6.00167}}0.492 }}12.1985}}24.7937}}50.3938}}
Cedar, northern white (Thuja occidentalis )5.57018}}0.315 }}17.6831}}56.1368}}178.212}}
Cedar, southern white (Chamaecyparis thvoides )6.42336}}0.352 }}18.2482}}51.8414}}147.277}}
Cedar, western red (Thuja plicata )8.03165}}0.344 }}23.3478}}67.8715}}197.301}}
Cherry, black (Prunus serotina )10.2578}}0.534 }}19.2093}}35.9724}}67.3641}}
Cherry, wild red (Prunus pennsylvanica )8.74753}}0.425 }}20.5824}}48.4292}}113.951}}
Chestnut (Castanea dentata )8.53179}}0.454 }}18.7925}}41.3931}}91.1743}}
Cottonwood, eastern (Populus deltoides )9.53206}}0.433 }}22.014}}50.8407}}117.415}}
Cypress, southern (Taxodium distichum )9.90472}}0.482 }}20.5492}}42.6332}}88.4506}}
Dogwood (flowering) (Cornus Florida )10.6402}}0.796 }}13.3671}}16.7928}}21.0965}}
Douglas fir (coast type) (Pseudotsuga taxifolia )13.3076}}0.512 }}25.9915}}50.7646}}99.1495}}
Douglas fir (mountain type) (Pseudotsuga taxifolia )9.62032}}0.446 }}21.5702}}48.3637}}108.439}}
Ebony, Andaman marble-wood (India) (Diospyros kursii )12.4544}}0.978 }}12.7346}}13.0211}}13.314}}
Ebony, Ebè marbre (Maritius, E. Africa) (Diospyros melanida )9.8753}}0.768 }}12.8585}}16.7428}}21.8005}}
Elm, American (Ulmus americana )9.2967}}0.554 }}16.7811}}30.2907}}54.6764}}
Elm, rock (Ulmus racemosa or Ulmus thomasi )10.65}}0.658 }}16.1854}}24.5979}}37.3829}}
Elm, slippery (Ulmus fulva or pubescens )10.297}}0.568 }}18.1285}}31.9164}}56.1908}}
Eucalyptus, Karri (W. Australia) (Eucalyptus diversicolor )18.4855}}0.829 }}22.2986}}26.8982}}32.4465}}
Eucalyptus, Mahogany (New South Wales)(Eucalyptus hemilampra)15.7691}}1.058 }}14.9046}}14.0875}}13.3153}}
Eucalyptus, West Australian mahogany (Eucalyptus marginata )14.3373}}0.787 }}18.2177}}23.1483}}29.4133}}
Fir, balsam (Abies balsamea)8.62005}}0.414 }}20.8214}}50.2932}}121.481}}
Fir, silver (Abies amabilis )10.552}}0.415 }}25.4264}}61.2684}}147.635}}
Gum, black (Nyssa sylvatica )8.22778}}0.552 }}14.9054}}27.0025}}48.9176}}
Gum, blue (Eucalyptus globulus )16.5046}}0.796 }}20.7344}}26.0483}}32.7239}}
Gum, red (Liquidambar styraciflua )10.2479}}0.530 }}19.3358}}36.4826}}68.835}}
Gum, tupelo (Nyssa aquatica )8.71811}}0.524 }}16.6376}}31.7512}}60.5939}}
Hemlock eastern (Tsuga canadensis )8.29643}}0.431 }}19.2492}}44.6618}}103.624}}
Hemlock, mountain (Tsuga martensiana )7.8159}}0.480 }}16.2831}}33.9232}}70.6733}}
Hemlock, western (Tsuga heterophylla )9.95375}}0.432 }}23.0411}}53.3359}}123.463}}
Hickory, bigleaf shagbark (Hicoria laciniosa )13.0919}}0.809}}16.1828}}20.0034}}24.7261}}
Hickory, mockernut (Hicoria alba )15.3964}}0.820}}18.7761}}22.8977}}27.9241}}
Hickory, pignut (Hicoria glabra )15.7201}}0.820}}19.1708}}23.379}}28.511}}
Hickory, shagbark (Hicoria ovata )14.9551}}0.836}}17.8889}}21.3982}}25.596}}
Hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana )11.7582}}0.762 }}15.4307}}20.2502}}26.5751}}
Ironwood, black (Rhamnidium ferreum )20.594}}1.077-1.30 }}17.48}}±1.6414.97}}±2.7812.93}}±3.56
Larch, western (Larix occidentalis )11.6503}}0.587 }}19.8472}}33.8112}}57.6}}
Locust, black or yellow (Robinia pseudacacia )14.2}}0.708 }}20.0565}}28.3284}}40.0119}}
Locust honey (Gleditsia triacanthos )11.4247}}0.666 }}17.1543}}25.7572}}38.6744}}
Magnolia, cucumber (Magnolia acuminata )12.5133}}0.516 }}24.2506}}46.9972}}91.0798}}
Mahogany (W. Africa) (Khaya ivorensis )10.5814}}0.668 }}15.8404}}23.7131}}35.4987}}
Mahogany (E. India) (Swietenia macrophylla )8.01203}}0.54 }}14.8371}}27.4761}}50.8817}}
Mahogany (E. India) (Swietenia mahogani )8.72792}}0.54 }}16.1628}}29.9311}}55.428}}
Maple, black (Acer nigrum )11.1894}}0.620 }}18.0474}}29.1087}}46.9495}}
Maple, red (Acer rubrum )11.3267}}0.546 }}20.7448}}37.9942}}69.5865}}
Maple, silver (Acer saccharinum )7.89435}}0.506 }}15.6015}}30.833}}60.9347}}
Maple, sugar (Acer saccharum )12.6506}}0.676 }}18.7139}}27.6832}}40.9515}}
Oak, black (Quercus velutina )11.3071}}0.669 }}16.9014}}25.2637}}37.7634}}
Oak, bur (Quercus macrocarpa )7.09021}}0.671 }}10.5666}}15.7476}}23.4688}}
Oak, canyon live (Quercus chrysolepis )11.2678}}0.838 }}13.4461}}16.0455}}19.1473}}
Oak, laurel (Quercus Montana )10.9246}}0.674 }}16.2086}}24.0484}}35.6801}}
Oak, live (Quercus virginiana )13.543}}0.977 }}13.8618}}14.1881}}14.5221}}
Oak, post (Quercus stellata or Quercus minor )10.4245}}0.738 }}14.1253}}19.14}}25.9349}}
Oak, red (Quercus borealis )12.4937}}0.657 }}19.0162}}28.9441}}44.0549}}
Oak, swamp chestnut (Quercus Montana (Quercus prinus) )12.2289}}0.756 }}16.1758}}21.3965}}28.3023}}
Oak swamp white (Quercus bicolor or Quercus platanoides )14.1804}}0.792 }}17.9046}}22.6068}}28.5439}}
Oak, white (Quercus alba )12.2681}}0.710 }}17.279}}24.3367}}34.277}}
Paulownia (P. tomentosa)6.894}}0.274 }}25.1606}}91.8269}}335.134}}
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana )14.151}}0.776 }}18.2358}}23.4998}}30.2832}}
Pine, eastern white (Pinus strobus )8.80637}}0.373 }}23.6096}}63.2964}}169.696}}
Pine, jack (Pinus banksiana or Pinus divericata )8.51217}}0.461 }}18.4646}}40.0533}}86.8836}}
Pine, loblolly (Pinus taeda )13.2782}}0.593 }}22.3916}}37.7598}}63.6759}}
Pine, longleaf (Pinus palustris )14.1706}}0.638 }}22.211}}34.8135}}54.5665}}
Pine, pitch (Pinus rigida )9.46342}}0.542 }}17.4602}}32.2144}}59.4361}}
Pine, red (Pinus resinosa )12.3956}}0.507 }}24.4489}}48.2227}}95.1139}}
Pine, shortleaf (Pinus echinata )13.1899}}0.584 }}22.5855}}38.6738}}66.2223}}
Poplar, balsam (Populus balsamifera or Populus candicans )7.02156}}0.331 }}21.2132}}64.0881}}193.62}}
Poplar, yellow (Liriodendron tulipifera )10.3754}}0.427 }}24.2984}}56.905}}133.267}}
Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens )9.39477}}0.436 }}21.5476}}49.4212}}113.351}}
Sassafras (Sassafras uariafolium )7.74725}}0.473 }}16.379}}34.6278}}73.209}}
Satinwood (Ceylon) (Chloroxylon swietenia )10.7971}}1.031 }}10.4725}}10.1576}}9.85217}}
Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum )10.6206}}0.593 }}17.91}}30.2023}}50.9313}}
Spruce, black (Picea mariana )10.4833}}0.428 }}24.4937}}57.2283}}133.711}}
Spruce, red (Picea rubra or Picea rubens )10.5029}}0.413 }}25.4308}}61.5758}}149.094}}
Spruce, white (Picea glauca )9.81646}}0.431 }}22.776}}52.8446}}122.609}}
Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis )9.82626}}0.539 }}18.2305}}33.8229}}62.7512}}
Tamarack (Larix laricina or Larix americana )11.3169}}0.558 }}20.2811}}36.3461}}65.1364}}
Teak (India) (Tectona grandis )11.7189}}0.5892 }}19.8896}}33.7569}}57.2928}}
Walnut, black (Juglans nigra )11.6209}}0.562 }}20.6777}}36.7931}}65.4682}}
Willow, black (Salix nigra )5.03081}}0.408 }}12.3304}}30.2216}}74.0726}}

See also

  • Specific strength

References

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Specific Modulus}}

1 : Materials science
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