“Spitzer (bullet)”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The spitzer bullet, also commonly referred to as a spire point bullet, is primarily a small arms ballistics development of the late 19th and early 20th century, driven by military desire for aerodynamic bullet designs that will give a higher degree of accuracy and kinetic efficiency, especially at extended ranges. To achieve this, the projectile must minimize air resistance in flight.

Bullets with a lower drag coefficient (C_d) decelerate less rapidly. A low drag coefficient flattens the projectile's trajectory somewhat at long ranges and also markedly decreases the lateral drift caused by crosswinds. The higher impact velocity of bullets with high ballistic coefficients means they retain more kinetic energy.

The name "spitzer" is an anglicized form of the German word Spitzgeschoss, literally meaning "pointed projectile".

The development of spitzer bullets made military doctrines possible which expected (not very accurate) rifle volleys at area targets at ranges up to {{convert|1420|to|2380|m|yd|abbr=on|-1}}. Combined with machine guns equipped with clinometers that could deliver plunging fire or indirect fire at more than {{convert|3000|m|yd|abbr=on|-1}}, spitzer bullets greatly increased the lethality of the battlefield during World War I. Before, during and after World War I some militaries adopted aerodynamically more refined spitzer boat tail bullet designs with improved maximum ranges of {{convert|4115|to|5500|m|yd|abbr=on|-1}}, though plunging fire or indirect fire methods were not as commonly used by machine gunners during World War II as they were during World War I.

Most spitzer bullets are loaded in intermediate and high-powered rifle cartridges.

History

Late 19th century

France

The spitzer bullet design was first introduced in 1898 as the Balle D by the French Army. The Balle D bullet was designed by Captain Georges Raymond Desaleux, in order to improve the ballistic performance of the existing French 8×50mmR Lebel service cartridge of 1886.

The original 1886 pattern 8×50mmR Lebel cartridge was an innovative service cartridge design, since it was the first military cartridge to use single-base smokeless, nitrocellulose based, (Poudre B) gunpowder as developed by Paul Vieille in 1884. The original 1886 pattern 8×50mmR Lebel was loaded with a {{convert|15.0|g|gr}} cupro-nickel-jacketed lead-cored flat-nosed wadcutter-style Balle M bullet designed by lieutenant colonel Nicolas Lebel achieving a muzzle velocity of {{convert|628|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}.

The new 1898 pattern 8×50mmR Lebel cartridge loaded with Desaleux's new lighter {{convert|12.8|g|gr}} Balle D brass mono-metal spitzer bullet achieved a muzzle velocity of {{convert|700|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}}, providing a somewhat flatter trajectory and a greatly improved maximum effective range. Besides having a pointed nose section the Balle D was also the first military rifle projectile that had a boat tail - a streamlined tapered base - to further minimize air resistance in flight.^[1]

Downrange performance

The 1898 pattern 8×50mmR Lebel Balle D spitzer nose profile combined with the boat tail resulted in a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of 0.568 to 0.581 (ballistic coefficients are somewhat debatable). Fired at {{convert|700|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}} muzzle velocity the Balle D bullet retained supersonic velocity up to and past {{convert|800|m|yd|abbr=on}} (V₈₀₀ ≈ Mach 1.13) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m³) and had a maximum range of approximately {{convert|4400|m|yd|0|abbr=on}}. Even by 21st century standards {{convert|800|m|yd|abbr=on}} typical effective supersonic range is regarded as normal for a standard military rifle round.^[2]

The above downrange performance tables show the superior velocity retention of the Balle D compared with its Balle M predecessor

1900–1914

German Empire

In Germany the Gewehr-Prüfungskommission (G.P.K.) (Rifle Testing Commission) was responsible for improving the accuracy and performance of the 1888 pattern military M/88 ammunition and Germany's weapons chambered for M/88 ammunition like the Gewehr 1888. During a late 19th and early 20th century improvement program tasked with remedying the M/88's propellant compression and excessive barrel (grooves) wear problems, the German ordnance authority began to prefer spitzer bullets by 1898.

A new Spitzgeschoß aerodynamic bullet, credited to the independent ballistician Arthur Gleinich, was tested in 1902 and officially adopted on 3 April 1903. After several shape revisions it entered mass production in 1904. The Spitzgeschoß nose was externally pointed like the French design and its shape was patented, but the full metal jacket Spitzgeschoß differed internally.^[5]^[6]^[7] The Gewehr-Prüfungskommission program resulted in the S Patrone or 7.92×57mm Mauser cartridge, which was loaded with a relatively lightweight {{convert|9.9|g|gr}} spitzer bullet with a slightly increased diameter of {{convert|8.2|mm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} that had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of approximately 0.321 to 0.337 (ballistic coefficients are somewhat debatable), along with a dimensionally redesigned chambering and bore (designated as "S-bore") and new double-base (based on nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin) smokeless powder loading, which delivered a greatly improved muzzle velocity of {{convert|878|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on}} from a {{convert|740|mm|in|1}} barrel. The S Patrone was adopted by the German Army and Navy in 1903 and had a maximum range of approximately {{convert|3700|m|yd|-1|abbr=on}}.^[8]^[9] The combination of increased muzzle velocity and improved bullet aerodynamics provided a much flatter bullet trajectory, which increased the probability of hitting an individual target at most typical combat distances.

At the onset of World War I, Germany developed an aerodynamically further refined bullet. This {{convert|12.8|g|gr}} full metal jacket s.S. (schweres Spitzgeschoß, "heavy spitzer") boat tail projectile had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of 0.557 to 0.593 (ballistic coefficients are somewhat debatable) and was loaded in the s.S. Patrone. At {{convert|760|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} muzzle velocity the s.S. Patrone had a maximum range of approximately {{convert|4700|m|yd|-1|abbr=on}} and retained supersonic velocity up to and past {{convert|1000|m|yd|abbr=on}} (V₁₀₀₀ ≈ Mach 1.07) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m³). From its 1914 introduction the s.S. Patrone was mainly issued for aerial combat and as of 1918 in the later stages of World War I to infantry machine gunners. Fifteen years after World War I the S Patrone was phased out and the s.S. Patrone became the standard issue ball ammunition for the German military.^[10]^[11]

United States

In 1906, United States ordnance authorities arranged to purchase the production license for the Spitzgeschoß bullet design from Gleinich. Now referred to as a 'spitzer' design, the new {{convert|9.7|g|gr}} flat base projectile that had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of approximately 0.405 with a cupro-nickel alloy jacket was incorporated into the M1906 .30-06 Springfield cartridge adopted by U.S. armed forces in 1906. The Ball, M1906 rounds had a muzzle velocity of {{convert|823|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} and had a maximum range of approximately {{convert|3117|m|yd|0|abbr=on}} and can be identified by their silver-colored bullets. The cupro-nickel alloy was found to quickly foul the bore.

Russian Empire

In 1908 the Russian Empire adopted a new 7.62×54mmR service round variant loaded with the "L" {{convert|9.61|g|gr|adj=on}} Лёгкая Пуля (Lyogkhaya pulya, "Light Bullet")} spitzer bullet that had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of approximately 0.338. The 7.62×54mmR M1908 Type L cartridge had a muzzle velocity of {{convert|865|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}}.

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

In 1910 the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland officially adopted the .303 British Mark VII cartridge variant loaded with an {{convert|11.3|g|gr}} flat base spitzer bullet that had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of approximately 0.467. The .303 British Mark VII cartridge had a muzzle velocity of {{convert|744|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} and a maximum range of approximately {{convert|2743|m|yd|abbr=on}}.^[12]^[13]

Switzerland

In 1911 Switzerland adopted the 7.5×55mm GP 11 cartridge loaded with a {{convert|11.3|g|gr}} spitzer full metal jacket bullet. Besides a pointed nose, the GP11 bullet also had a boat tail. The GP11 projectile had a ballistic coefficient (G1 BC) of 0.505 to 0.514 (ballistic coefficients are somewhat debatable) and had a maximum range of approximately {{convert|5500|m|yd|0|abbr=on}}. At {{convert|780|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} muzzle velocity the standard GP 11 ball spitzer bullet retained supersonic velocity up to {{convert|800|m|yd|abbr=on}} (V₈₀₀ ≈ Mach 1.1) under ICAO Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m³).

Kingdom of Spain

In 1913 the ordnance authorities of the Kingdom of Spain issued a redesigned 7×57mm Mauser cartridge (7mm Cartucho para Mauser Tipo S).^[14] It was loaded with a {{convert|9|g|gr|1}} spitzer bullet fired at a muzzle velocity of {{convert|850|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} with {{convert|3251|J|ft.lbf|abbr=on|0}} muzzle energy from a {{convert|589|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} long barrel. It had a maximum range of {{convert|3700|m|yd|-1|abbr=on}}.^[15]

Post 1918

Sweden

In 1932 Sweden introduced the 8×63mm patron m/32 loaded with {{Convert|14.2|g|gr|abbr=on}} spitzer bullets with a boat tail fired at a muzzle velocity of {{convert|760|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} bullets. The 8×63mm patron m/32 ammunition was not developed as general service ammunition but for anti-aircraft and indirect fire and had an effective range of approximately {{convert|3600|m|yd|0|abbr=on}} on which the impact energy was {{convert|196|J|ftlbf|0|abbr=on}}, and a maximum range of approximately {{convert|5500|m|yd|0|abbr=on}} when fired from a kulspruta m/36 machine gun.^[16]

Sweden and Norway loaded their 6.5×55mm m/94 service ammunition with a {{convert|10.1|g|gr}} long round-nosed bullet (B-projectile) fired at a muzzle velocity of {{convert|725|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}} up to the early phase of World War II and Norwegian occupation by German in 1940. From 1941 onwards Sweden, which remained neutral during World War II, adopted m/41 service ammunition loaded with a {{convert|9.1|g|gr}} spitzer bullet (D-projectile) fired at a muzzle velocity of {{convert|800|m/s|ft/s|0|abbr=on}}.^[17] Besides a pointed nose the m/41 D-projectile also had a boat tail.^[18]

References

1. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.chuckhawks.com/8mm_lebel.htm |title=The 8x50R Lebel (8mm Lebel) |author=Chuck Hawks}}
2. ^Maximum effective rifle range
3. ^The 8mm (7,92X57) Mauser Cartridge, Ballistics of the F.N. Rifle, Cal. 7,9 m/m Streamlined Pointed Bullet with Tapered Base (197.5 gr.)
4. ^FN Mauser Model 98 rifle and carbine operator's manual
5. ^{{cite book| author = Hans-Dieter Götz| title = Die Deutschen Militargewehre und Maschinenpistolen: 1871-1945| page= 133| year = 1974| isbn = 3-87943-350-X |language = de}}
6. ^The patent assigned by the US Patent Office to the Deutsche Waffen- und Munitionsfabriken Aktien-Gesellschaft for an Improved Form for Projectiles for Hand-Firearms can be found under {{US patent|RE12927|US PAT No. RE12927}}.
7. ^[https://www.google.si/patents/US841861 Patent US 841861 A Projectile for hand-firearms (1907).]
8. ^The 8mm (7,92×57) Mauser Cartridge, Ballistics of the F.N. Rifle, Cal. 7,9mm Light Pointed Bullet (154 gr.) S Patrone
9. ^8×57mm IS cartridge portrait - Totgesagte leben länger, Wild und Hund 11/2006 {{de icon}} {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001220755/http://www.wildundhund.de/r30/vc_content/bilder/firma438/Archiv_2006/052_057_8x57_1106.pdf |date=2011-10-01 }}
10. ^Die Patrone 7.92mm (8x57)
11. ^20th Century German Military Arms and Ammo
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.enfieldrifles.ca/ti5.htm |title=Rifle, Short Magazine Lee Enfield |publisher=The Lee-Enfield Rifle Website |accessdate=13 May 2010}}
13. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.dave-cushman.net/shot/303hist.html |title=History of the .303 British Calibre Service Ammunition Round |author=David Cushman}}
14. ^The Spanish Modelo 1893 Mauser Rifle by Paul Scarlata • Shooting Times • September 23, 2010
15. ^FN Mauser Model 98 Rifle and Carbine Operator's Manual page 28 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510120527/http://www.nazarian.no/images/wep/24_FN98.pdf |date=2012-05-10 }}
16. ^Swedish Kulspruta m/36 at forgottenweapons.com
17. ^Swedish Military Rifles 1894 - 1995
18. ^6.5x55 Ammunition