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词条 Exploration of Mars
释义

  1. Current status

  2. Martian system

  3. Launch windows

  4. Past and current missions

      Recent missions   Overview of missions  Early Soviet missions  1960s   The first success   1970s  Mariner program  Viking program  Mars Pathfinder  Mars Global Surveyor  Mars Odyssey and Mars Express  MER and Phoenix  Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter  Rosetta and Dawn swingbys   Fobos-Grunt    Curiosity rover   MAVEN  Mars Orbiter Mission  Trace Gas Orbiter and EDM  InSight and MarCO 

  5. Future missions

     Proposals 

  6. Human mission proposals

     NASA  Zubrin 

  7. {{anchor|Mars Curse}}Probing difficulties

  8. See also

  9. References

  10. Bibliography

  11. External links

  12. Notes

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The planet Mars has been explored remotely by spacecraft. Probes sent from Earth, beginning in the late 20th century, have yielded a large increase in knowledge about the Martian system, focused primarily on understanding its geology and habitability potential.[1] Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly sixty percent of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, which operated for years beyond their specification.[2]

Current status

On June 10, 2018, Opportunity rover fell silent, leaving Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. The stationary lander InSight is investigating the deep interior of Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed in 2011.[3]

Selected Soviet Mars probes
Spacecraft Orbiter or flyby outcome Lander outcome
Mars 1 {{Failure}} {{Failure}}
Mars 2 {{Success}} {{Failure}}
Mars 3 {{Partial success}} {{Partial success}}
Mars 4 {{Failure}} {{n/a}}
Mars 5 {{Partial success}} {{n/a}}
Mars 6 {{Success}} {{Failure}}
Mars 7 {{Success}} {{Failure}}
Phobos 1 {{Failure}} Not deployed}}
Phobos 2 {{Partial success}} Not deployed}}
Mars 1 (1962 Beta Nu 1), an automatic interplanetary spacecraft launched to Mars on November 1, 1962, was the first probe of the Soviet Mars probe program to achieve interplanetary orbit. Mars 1 was intended to fly by the planet at a distance of about 11,000 km and take images of the surface as well as send back data on cosmic radiation, micrometeoroid impacts and Mars' magnetic field, radiation environment, atmospheric structure, and possible organic compounds.[42][43] Sixty-one radio transmissions were held, initially at two-day intervals and later at 5 day intervals, from which a large amount of interplanetary data was collected. On 21 March 1963, when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106,760,000 km from Earth, on its way to Mars, communications ceased due to failure of its antenna orientation system.[42][43]

In 1964, both Soviet probe launches, of Zond 1964A on June 4, and Zond 2 on November 30, (part of the Zond program), resulted in failures. Zond 1964A had a failure at launch, while communication was lost with Zond 2 en route to Mars after a mid-course maneuver, in early May 1965.[3]

In 1969, and as part of the Mars probe program, the Soviet Union prepared two identical 5-ton orbiters called M-69, dubbed by NASA as Mars 1969A and Mars 1969B. Both probes were lost in launch-related complications with the newly developed Proton rocket.[44]

1970s

The USSR intended to have the first artificial satellite of Mars beating the planned American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 Mars orbiters. In May 1971, one day after Mariner 8 malfunctioned at launch and failed to reach orbit, Cosmos 419 (Mars 1971C), a heavy probe of the Soviet Mars program M-71, also failed to launch. This spacecraft was designed as an orbiter only, while the next two probes of project M-71, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were multipurpose combinations of an orbiter and a lander with small skis-walking rovers that would be the first planet rovers outside the Moon. They were successfully launched in mid-May 1971 and reached Mars about seven months later. On November 27, 1971 the lander of Mars 2 crash-landed due to an on-board computer malfunction and became the first man-made object to reach the surface of Mars. On 2 December 1971, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing, but its transmission was interrupted after 14.5 seconds.[45]

The Mars 2 and 3 orbiters sent back a relatively large volume of data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through to August. By 22 August 1972, after sending back data and a total of 60 pictures, Mars 2 and 3 concluded their missions. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields.[46]

In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. Mars 5 transmitted just 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but failed upon impact. Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km returning one swath of pictures and radio occultation data, which constituted the first detection of the nightside ionosphere on Mars.[47] Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by {{convert|1300|km|au}}.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Mariner program

{{Main|Mariner program|Mariner 4|Mariner 6 and 7|Mariner 9}}

In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 was launched successfully on a 7½-month voyage to Mars..{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Mariner 4 flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, providing the first close-up photographs of another planet. The pictures, gradually played back to Earth from a small tape recorder on the probe, showed impact craters. It provided radically more accurate data about the planet; a surface atmospheric pressure of about 1% of Earth's and daytime temperatures of −100 °C (−148 °F) were estimated. No magnetic field[48][49] or Martian radiation belts[50] were detected. The new data meant redesigns for then planned Martian landers, and showed life would have a more difficult time surviving there than previously anticipated.[51][52][53][54]

NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of Mars flyby probes, Mariner 6 and 7. They were sent at the next launch window, and reached the planet in 1969. During the following launch window the Mariner program again suffered the loss of one of a pair of probes. Mariner 9 successfully entered orbit about Mars, the first spacecraft ever to do so, after the launch time failure of its sister ship, Mariner 8. When Mariner 9 reached Mars in 1971, it and two Soviet orbiters (Mars 2 and Mars 3, see Mars probe program above) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress. The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph, Phobos. When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions. These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was one of only a few features that could be seen during the planetary duststorm, revealing it to be the highest mountain (volcano, to be exact) on any planet in the entire Solar System, and leading to its reclassification as Olympus Mons.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Viking program

{{main|Viking program|Viking 1|Viking 2|Viking spacecraft biological experiments}}

The Viking program launched Viking 1 and Viking 2 spacecraft to Mars in 1975; The program consisted of two orbiters and two landers – these were the first two spacecraft to successfully land and operate on Mars.

align = left width1 = 97 width2 = 110 width3 = 122 width4 = 123 width5 = 100 width6 = 196 image2 = PIA00563-Viking1-FirstColorImage-19760721.jpg caption2 = Viking 1 lander site (1st color, July 21, 1976). image3 = First Color Image of the Viking Lander 2 Site.jpg caption3 = Viking 2 lander site (1st color, September 5, 1976). image4 = Vl2 22g144-MarsViking2-19770925.gif caption4 = Viking 2 lander site (September 25, 1977). image5 = Mars Viking 21i093.png caption5 = (False color image) Frost at Viking 2 site (May 18, 1979). image6 = Mars Viking 12a240.png caption6 = Martian sunset over Chryse Planitia at Viking 1 site (August 20, 1976).

The primary scientific objectives of the lander mission were to search for biosignatures and observe meteorologic, seismic and magnetic properties of Mars. The results of the biological experiments on board the Viking landers remain inconclusive, with a reanalysis of the Viking data published in 2012 suggesting signs of microbial life on Mars.[55][56]

align = left width1 = 90 width2 = 125 width3 = 105 width4 = 117 image1 =Detail_of_Maja_Valles_Flow.jpg caption1 = Flood erosion at Dromore crater. image2 = Viking Teardrop Islands.jpg caption2 = Tear-drop shaped islands at Oxia Palus. image3 = Streamlined Islands in Maja Valles.jpg caption3 = Streamlined islands in Lunae Palus. image4 = Chryse Planitia Scour Patterns.jpg caption4 = Scour patterns located in Lunae Palus.

The Viking orbiters revealed that large floods of water carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Areas of branched streams, in the southern hemisphere, suggest that rain once fell.[57][58][59]

Mars Pathfinder

{{main|Mars Pathfinder|Mars landing}}Mars Pathfinder was a U.S. spacecraft that landed a base station with a roving probe on Mars on July 4, 1997. It consisted of a lander and a small {{convert|10.6|kg|lb}} wheeled robotic rover named Sojourner, which was the first rover to operate on the surface of Mars.[60][61] In addition to scientific objectives, the Mars Pathfinder mission was also a "proof-of-concept" for various technologies, such as an airbag landing system and automated obstacle avoidance, both later exploited by the Mars Exploration Rovers.[60]

Mars Global Surveyor

{{Main|Mars Global Surveyor}}

After the 1992 failure of NASA's Mars Observer orbiter, NASA retooled and launched Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). Mars Global Surveyor launched on November 7, 1996, and entered orbit on September 12, 1997. After a year and a half trimming its orbit from a looping ellipse to a circular track around the planet, the spacecraft began its primary mapping mission in March 1999. It observed the planet from a low-altitude, nearly polar orbit over the course of one complete Martian year, the equivalent of nearly two Earth years. Mars Global Surveyor completed its primary mission on January 31, 2001, and completed several extended mission phases.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The mission studied the entire Martian surface, atmosphere, and interior, and returned more data about the red planet than all previous Mars missions combined. The data has been archived and remains available publicly.[62]

Among key scientific findings, Global Surveyor took pictures of gullies and debris flow features that suggest there may be current sources of liquid water, similar to an aquifer, at or near the surface of the planet. Similar channels on Earth are formed by flowing water, but on Mars the temperature is normally too cold and the atmosphere too thin to sustain liquid water. Nevertheless, many scientists hypothesize that liquid groundwater can sometimes surface on Mars, erode gullies and channels, and pool at the bottom before freezing and evaporating.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Magnetometer readings showed that the planet's magnetic field is not globally generated in the planet's core, but is localized in particular areas of the crust. New temperature data and closeup images of the Martian moon Phobos showed that its surface is composed of powdery material at least 1 metre (3 feet) thick, caused by millions of years of meteoroid impacts. Data from the spacecraft's laser altimeter gave scientists their first 3-D views of Mars' north polar ice cap.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Faulty software uploaded to the vehicle in June 2006 caused the spacecraft to orient its solar panels incorrectly several months later, resulting in battery overheating and subsequent failure.[63] On November 5, 2006 MGS lost contact with Earth.[64] NASA ended efforts to restore communication on January 28, 2007.[65]

Mars Odyssey and Mars Express

{{Main|2001 Mars Odyssey|Mars Express}}

In 2001, NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter arrived at Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

On June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer created to date, as well as a range of other devices, on a robotic arm in order to accurately analyze soil beneath the dusty surface to look for biosignatures and biomolecules.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The orbiter entered Mars orbit on December 25, 2003, and Beagle 2 entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA. The Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole, while NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

The lander's fate remained a mystery until it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.[66][67] The images suggest that two of the spacecraft's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna. Beagle 2 is the first British and first European probe to achieve a soft landing on Mars.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

MER and Phoenix

{{Main|Mars Exploration Rover|Opportunity rover|Spirit rover|Phoenix lander}}{{see also|Mars landing}}

NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER), started in 2003, was a robotic space mission involving two rovers, Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity, (MER-B) that explored the Martian surface geology.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} The mission's scientific objective was to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission was part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

{{Main|Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter}}

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The $720 million USD spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005, and entered Mars orbit on March 10, 2006.[69]

The MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as the HiRISE camera, CTX camera, CRISM, and SHARAD. The HiRISE camera is used to analyze Martian landforms, whereas CRISM and SHARAD can detect water, ice, and minerals on and below the surface. Additionally, MRO is paving the way for upcoming generations of spacecraft through daily monitoring of Martian weather and surface conditions, searching for future landing sites, and testing a new telecommunications system that enable it to send and receive information at an unprecedented bitrate, compared to previous Mars spacecraft. Data transfer to and from the spacecraft occurs faster than all previous interplanetary missions combined and allows it to serve as an important relay satellite for other missions.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Rosetta and Dawn swingbys

{{Main|Rosetta (spacecraft)|Dawn Mission}}

The ESA Rosetta space probe mission to the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko flew within 250 km of Mars on February 25, 2007, in a gravitational slingshot designed to slow and redirect the spacecraft.[70]

The NASA Dawn spacecraft used the gravity of Mars in 2009 to change direction and velocity on its way to Vesta, and tested out Dawn{{'s}} cameras and other instruments on Mars.[71]

Fobos-Grunt

{{main|Fobos-Grunt}}

On November 8, 2011, Russia's Roscosmos launched an ambitious mission called Fobos-Grunt. It consisted of a lander aimed to retrieve a sample back to Earth from Mars' moon Phobos, and place the Chinese Yinghuo-1 probe in Mars' orbit. The Fobos-Grunt mission suffered a complete control and communications failure shortly after launch and was left stranded in low Earth orbit, later falling back to Earth.[72] The Yinghuo-1 satellite and Fobos-Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on January 15, 2012, finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean.[73][74][75]

Curiosity rover

{{main|Mars Science Laboratory|Curiosity rover|Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory}}

The NASA Mars Science Laboratory mission with its rover named Curiosity, was launched on November 26, 2011,[76][77] and landed on Mars on August 6, 2012 on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. The rover carries instruments designed to look for past or present conditions relevant to the past or present habitability of Mars.[78][79][80][81]

MAVEN

NASA's MAVEN is an orbiter mission to study the upper atmosphere of Mars.[82] It will also serve as a communications relay satellite for robotic landers and rovers on the surface of Mars. MAVEN was launched 18 November 2013 and reached Mars on 22 September 2014.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Mars Orbiter Mission

The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called Mangalyaan, was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[83] It was successfully inserted into Martian orbit on 24 September 2014. The mission is a technology demonstrator, and as secondary objective, it will also study the Martian atmosphere. This is India's first mission to Mars, and with it, ISRO became the fourth space agency to successfully reach Mars after the Soviet Union, NASA (USA) and ESA (Europe). It also made ISRO the second space agency to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt (the first national one, after the international ESA), and also the first Asian country to successfully send an orbiter to Mars. It was completed in a record low budget of $71 million,[84][85] making it the least-expensive Mars mission to date.[86]

Trace Gas Orbiter and EDM

{{main|Trace Gas Orbiter|Schiaparelli EDM lander}}

The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter is an atmospheric research orbiter built in collaboration between ESA and Roscosmos. It was injected into Mars orbit on 19 October 2016 to gain a better understanding of methane ({{chem|C|H|4}}) and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological or geological activity. The Schiaparelli EDM lander was destroyed when trying to land on the surface of Mars.[87]

InSight and MarCO

{{main|InSight}}

In August 2012, NASA selected InSight, a $425 million lander mission with a heat flow probe and seismometer, to determine the deep interior structure of Mars.[88][89][90] Two flyby CubeSats called MarCO were launched with InSight on 5 May 2018[91] to provide real-time telemetry during the entry and landing of InSight. The CubeSats separated from the Atlas V booster 1.5 hours after launch and traveled their own trajectories to Mars.[92][93][94] InSight landed successfully on Mars on 26 November 2018.[95]

Future missions

{{see also|Mars sample return mission}}
  • As part of the ExoMars program, ESA and the Russian Federal Space Agency plan to send the Rosalind Franklin rover in 2020 to search for evidence of past or present microscopic life on Mars.[96]
  • The Mars 2020 rover mission by NASA will be launched in 2020, and it is based on the Mars Science Laboratory design. The scientific payload will be focused on astrobiology.[97] It will include a miniature robotic Mars Helicopter Scout.
  • The 2020 Chinese Mars Mission is planned to comprise an orbiter, a lander and a small rover.[98]
  • The United Arab Emirates will send an orbiter to Mars, the Hope Mars Mission, in 2020.[99][100]
  • India's ISRO plans to send a follow-up mission to its Mars Orbiter Mission in the 2021–2022 timeframe; it is called Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM-2). This mission will consist of an orbiter, and probably a rover.[101]

Proposals

  • The Finnish-Russian Mars MetNet concept would use multiple small meteorological stations on Mars to establish a widespread observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure, physics and meteorology.[102] The MetNet precursor or demonstrator was considered for a piggyback launch on Fobos-Grunt,[103] and on the two proposed to fly on the 2016 and 2020 ExoMars spacecraft.[102]
  • The Mars-Grunt is a Russian mission concept to bring a sample of Martian soil to Earth.[104]
  • A ESA-NASA team produced a three-launch architecture concept for a Mars sample return, which uses a rover to cache small samples, a Mars ascent stage to send it into orbit, and an orbiter to rendezvous with it above Mars and take it to Earth.[105] Solar-electric propulsion could allow a one launch sample return instead of three.[106]
  • The Mars Scout Program's SCIM would involve a probe grazing the upper atmosphere of Mars to collect dust and air for return to Earth.[107]
  • Japan is working on a mission concept called MELOS rover that would look for biosignatures of extant life on Mars.[108]

Other future mission concepts include polar probes, Martian aircraft and a network of small meteorological stations.[105] Longterm areas of study may include Martian lava tubes, resource utilization, and electronic charge carriers in rocks.[109][110] Micromissions are another possibility, such as piggybacking a small spacecraft on an Ariane 5 rocket and using a lunar gravity assist to get to Mars.[111]

Human mission proposals

{{Main|Human mission to Mars}}

Many people have long advocated a human mission to Mars, perhaps eventually leading to the permanent colonization of Mars, as the next logical step for a human space program after lunar exploration. Aside from the prestige such a mission would bring, advocates argue that humans would easily be able to outperform robotic explorers, justifying the expense. Aerospace engineer Robert Zubrin is one of the proponents of such missions. Various asteroids, moons, and places on Mars can be mined while crops are initially being planted.[112] This method will save lives on Earth, add potentially trillions of dollars to the world economy annually, and provide a stable colony on Mars. Some have also stated that persons should stay on Earth, but get food and resources from Mars and surrounding asteroids, moons, greenhouses in space and other structures. Some critics contend unmanned robots can perform better than humans at a fraction of the expense. If life exists on Mars, a human mission could contaminate it by introducing earthly microbes, so robotic exploration would be preferable.[113]

NASA

Human exploration by the United States was identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by then US President George W. Bush.[128] The planned Orion spacecraft would be used to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to a Mars expedition. On September 28, 2007, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a person on Mars by 2037.[129]

On December 2, 2014, NASA's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the Boeing "Affordable Mars Mission Design" including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in-transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return.[114][115] Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.[116]

On October 8, 2015, NASA published its official plan for human exploration and colonization of Mars. They called it "Journey to Mars". The plan operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.[117]

  • The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant" phase. This phase continues utilizing the International Space Station until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body.
  • The second stage, "Proving Ground," moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into cislunar space for most of its tasks. This is when NASA plans to capture an asteroid (planned for 2020), test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars. Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources.
  • The last stage, the "Earth Independent" phase, includes long term missions on the lunar surface which leverage surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.[118]
{{wide image|NASA-JourneyToMars-ScienceExplorationTechnology-20141202.jpg|600px|align-cap=center|Journey to Mars – Science, Exploration, Technology.}}

On August 28, 2015, NASA funded a year long simulation to study the effects of a year long Mars mission on six scientists. The scientists lived in a bio dome on a Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii with limited connection to the outside world and were only allowed outside if they were wearing spacesuits.[119][120]

NASAs human Mars exploration plans have evolved through the NASA Mars Design Reference Missions, a series of design studies for human exploration of Mars.

Zubrin

Mars Direct, a low-cost human mission proposed by Robert Zubrin, founder of the Mars Society, would use heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets, such as the Ares V, to skip orbital construction, LEO rendezvous, and lunar fuel depots. A modified proposal, called "Mars to Stay", involves not returning the first immigrant explorers immediately, if ever (see Colonization of Mars).[121][122][139][123][124]

{{anchor|Mars Curse}}Probing difficulties

Mars Spacecraft 1988–1999
Spacecraft Outcome
Phobos 1 {{Failure}}
Phobos 2 {{Failure}}
Mars Observer {{Failure}}
Mars 96 {{Failure}}
Mars Pathfinder {{Success}}
Mars Global Surveyor {{Success}}
Mars Climate Orbiter {{Failure}}
Mars Polar Lander {{Failure}}
Deep Space 2 {{Failure}}
Nozomi {{Failure}}

The challenge, complexity and length of Mars missions have led to many mission failures.[125] The high failure rate of missions launched from Earth attempting to explore Mars is informally called the "Mars Curse" or "Martian Curse".[126] The phrase "Galactic Ghoul"[127] or "Great Galactic Ghoul", referring to a fictitious space monster that subsists on a diet of Mars probes, was coined in 1997 by Time Magazine journalist Donald Neff, and is sometimes facetiously used to "explain" the recurring difficulties.[128][129][130][131]

Two Soviet probes were sent to Mars in 1988 as part of the Phobos program. Phobos 1 operated normally until an expected communications session on 2 September 1988 failed to occur. The problem was traced to a software error, which deactivated attitude thrusters causing the spacecrafts' solar arrays to no longer point at the Sun, depleting Phobos 1 batteries. Phobos 2 operated normally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29, 1989, gathering data on the Sun, interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Shortly before the final phase of the mission, during which the spacecraft was to approach within 50 m of Phobos' surface and release two landers, one a mobile 'hopper', the other a stationary platform, contact with Phobos 2 was lost. The mission ended when the spacecraft signal failed to be successfully reacquired on March 27, 1989. The cause of the failure was determined to be a malfunction of the on-board computer.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Just a few years later in 1992 Mars Observer, launched by NASA, failed as it approached Mars. Mars 96, an orbiter launched on November 16, 1996 by Russia failed, when the planned second burn of the Block D-2 fourth stage did not occur.[132]

Following the success of Global Surveyor and Pathfinder, another spate of failures occurred in 1998 and 1999, with the Japanese Nozomi orbiter and NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter, Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2 penetrators all suffering various fatal errors. The Mars Climate Orbiter was noted for mixing up U.S. customary units with metric units, causing the orbiter to burn up while entering Mars' atmosphere.[133]

The European Space Agency has also attempted to land two probes on the Martian surface; Beagle 2, a British-built lander that failed to deploy its solar arrays properly after touchdown in December 2003, and Schiaparelli, which was flown along the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. Contact with the Schiaparelli EDM lander was lost 50 seconds before touchdown.[134] It was later confirmed that the lander struck the surface at a high velocity, possibly exploding.[135]

See also

{{Portal|Mars|Spaceflight|Robotics}}
Mars
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
  • Colonization of Mars
  • Human mission to Mars
  • Life on Mars
  • List of artificial objects on Mars
  • List of missions to Mars
  • Mars landing
  • Mars race
  • Mars rover
  • Mars Scout Program
  • Mars Society
{{div col end}}
General
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
  • Observations and explorations of Venus
  • Space colonization
  • Space exploration
  • Space weather
  • Timeline of Solar System exploration
{{div col end}}

References

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Bibliography

  • Mars – A Warmer, Wetter Planet by Jeffrey S. Kargel (published July 2004; {{ISBN|978-1-85233-568-7}})
  • The Compact NASA Atlas of the Solar System by Ronald Greeley and Raymond Batson (published January 2002; {{ISBN|0-521-80633-X}})
  • Mars: The NASA Mission Reports / edited by Robert Godwin (2000) {{ISBN|1-896522-62-9}}

External links

{{Commons category|Mars exploration}}
  • NASA Mars exploration website
  • Mars Exploration Scientific American Maps and Articles
  • Next on Mars (Bruce Moomaw, Space Daily, 9 March 2005): An extensive overview of NASA's Mars exploration plans
  • Catalog of Soviet Mars images Collection of Russian Mars probes' images.
  • Simplified study of orbits to land on Mars and return to Earth (High School level)
  • Planetary Society Mars page

Notes

{{note|active|α}} The diagram includes missions that are active on the surface, such as operational rovers and landers, as well as probes in Mars orbit. The diagram does not include missions that are en-route to Mars, or probes that have previously performed a fly-by of Mars and moved on. The two probes of the Mars Cube One mission are counted as a single mission.

{{Mars}}{{Geography of Mars}}{{Mars spacecraft}}{{Human missions to Mars}}{{Planetary exploration}}{{Solar System}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Exploration Of Mars}}

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