| 词条 | Titanis |
| 释义 |
| fossil_range = Blancan-Gelasian,[1] {{fossil range|4.9|1.8}} | image = Phorusrhacid skeleton.jpg | image_caption = Reconstructed skeleton, Florida Museum of Natural History | taxon = Titanis | authority = Brodkorb, 1963 | type_species = {{extinct}}Titanis walleri | type_species_authority = Brodkorb, 1963 }}Titanis walleri is a large extinct flightless carnivorous bird of the family Phorusrhacidae, endemic to North America from the Hempillian to the late Blancan stage of the Pliocene living 4.9—1.8 Ma, and died out during the Gelasian Age of the earliest Pleistocene, existing approximately {{Mya|4.9-1.8|million years}}.[2] It was {{convert|2.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall and weighed approximately {{convert|150|kg|lb}}.[3] TaxonomyThe generic name, Titanis, refers to the titans, Ancient Greek gods that preceded the Twelve Olympians, in allusion to the bird's size. The specific name, T. walleri, honors the holotype's collector, Benjamin I. Waller. EvolutionIt lived approximately 5-2 million years ago (early Pliocene to early Pleistocene) in North America. Fossil evidence has been found in three locations in Florida and one in Texas.[4] The Gilchrist County, Florida site dates from 3.0 to 2.9 million years ago.[4]The Santa Fe River, where 27 of the 41 Titanis fossil specimen have been found, is located in Gilchrist County, Florida. The other locations that Titanis has been found include Port Charlotte and Inglis, Florida. Only one specimen has been found outside of Florida, and that was in the Nueces River in Texas. From circumstantial evidence (i.e., bone fractures), it has been suggested that the species did not become extinct until 15,000 years ago,[5] but more precise dating by McFadden and colleagues refutes such a late date; all known Titanis fossils appear to be at least 2 million years old.[1][6] Titanis was part of the group of giant flightless birds called the Phorusrhacidae, which are nicknamed "terror birds", and has been thought to represent the youngest species of the lineage (recently, a significantly younger South American example has been reported).[7] The Phorusrhacidae originated in South America; Titanis is the only known member of the branch of the group that migrated out of that continent during the Great American Interchange. Studies of the closely related Andalgalornis steulleti, which is also in the family Phorusrhadiae reveals new information about the head and neck movement of Titanis Walleri and all "terror birds" of this family. In a series of tests on the skull of Anadalgalornis, it was found that these birds would have had a hard time moving their heads laterally. However, the back and forth movement of the skull was tremendous, and it is thought that Titanis most likely used its massive skull to pummel prey to death.[8][9] A lineage of related predatory birds, the bathornithids, occurred in North America from the Paleocene to the Miocene. They were not ancestral to Titanis or any other phorusrhacid, but they occupied similar ecological niches and some like Paracrax even attained similar sizes, reaching above 2 meters in height. They became extinct more or less 15 million years before Titanis reached North America.[10] The only living relatives of Titanis are the seriemas. DescriptionIt was {{convert|2.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} tall and weighed approximately {{convert|150|kg|lb}}, but with large variance (perhaps indicating strong sexual dimorphism).[11] Though its skull has not been found, it most probably would have been large, with a huge, axe-like beak, like its relatives. The wings were small and could not have been used for flight. The wing bones articulated in an unusual joint-like structure, suggesting the digits could flex to some degree. It also had a relatively rigid wrist, which would not have allowed the hand to fold back against the arm to the same degree as other birds. This led R. M. Chandler to suggest that the wings may have supported some type of clawed, mobile hand similar to the hands of non-avian theropod dinosaurs, such as the dromaeosaurs (also popularly known as "raptors").[12] However, it was later pointed out that this wing joint is not in fact unique, and is present in seriemas (extant members of the same order, Cariamae, to which Titanis and other phorusrhacids belonged), which do not have any specialized grasping hands.[13] Overall, Titanis was very similar to the South American Phorusrhacos and Devincenzia, its closest relatives. However, it differs from these in having a shorter, thicker neck, and an overall more heavily built bodily structure. Little is known of its body structure, but it seems to have been less wide-footed than Devincenzia, with a proportionally much stronger middle toe.[14] Titanis was thought to be carnivorous and most likely preyed on the many small mammals of the time period.[15]References1. ^1 {{cite journal | last1= MacFadden | first1= Bruce J. | last2= Labs-Hochstein | first2= Joann | last3= Hulbert | first3= Richard C. | last4= Baskin | first4= Jon A. | year= 2007 | title= Revised age of the late Neogene terror bird (Titanis) in North America during the Great American Interchange | journal= Geology | volume= 35 | issue= 2 | pages= 123–126 | doi= 10.1130/G23186A.1 | df= }} 2. ^{{cite journal|author=Marsh, O. C. |year=1875|title= On the Odontornithes, or birds with teeth|journal= American Journal of Science |volume=10|issue=12|pages=403–408|jstor=2448315|url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-2448315|doi=10.2475/ajs.s3-10.59.403}} 3. ^{{Cite book|title=Living Dinosaurs: The Evolution of Modern Birds|last=Dyke|first=Gareth|publisher=John Wiley and Sons, Inc.|date=15 February 2011|isbn=|location=|pages=}} 4. ^Alroy, John, Ph.D. Synonymies and reidentifications of North American fossil mammals, 2002. John P. Hunter, Ohio State University, Mammalian Paleontology. 5. ^{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/02724634.1995.10011266 |last=Baskin |first=J. A.|year=1995|title=The giant flightless bird Titanis walleri (Aves: Phorusrhacidae) from the Pleistocene coastal plain of South Texas |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=842–844}} 6. ^1 {{cite journal |last=McFadden |first=B.|last2=Labs-Hochstein|first2=J. |last3=Hulbert, Jr.|first3=R. C. |last4=Baskin|first4=J. A. |year=2006 |title=Refined age of the late Neogene terror bird (Titanis) from Florida and Texas using rare earth elements |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=92A (Supplement)|url=http://users.tamuk.edu/kfjab02/pdf%20jpg%20gif%20files/Titanis%20SVP.pdf | doi = 10.1080/02724634.2006.10010069}} 7. ^{{Cite journal | last = Alvarenga | first = H. |last2 = Jones |first2 = W. |last3 = Rinderknecht |first3 = A. | title = The youngest record of phorusrhacid birds (Aves, Phorusrhacidae) from the late Pleistocene of Uruguay | journal = Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen | volume = 256 | issue = 2 | pages = 229–234 | date = May 2010 | doi = 10.1127/0077-7749/2010/0052}} 8. ^{{cite journal|last1=Degrange|first1=Federico J.|last2=Tambussi|first2=Claudia P.|last3=Moreno|first3=Karen|last4=Witmer|first4=Lawrence M.|last5=Wroe|first5=Stephen|last6=Turvey|first6=Samuel T.|title=Mechanical Analysis of Feeding Behavior in the Extinct "Terror Bird" Andalgalornis steulleti (Gruiformes: Phorusrhacidae)|journal=PLoS ONE|date=18 August 2010|volume=5|issue=8|pages=e11856|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0011856|pmid=20805872|pmc=2923598}} 9. ^{{cite journal|last1=Tambussi|first1=Claudia P.|last2=de Mendoza|first2=Ricardo|last3=Degrange|first3=Federico J.|last4=Picasso|first4=Mariana B.|last5=Evans|first5=Alistair Robert|title=Flexibility along the Neck of the Neogene Terror Bird Andalgalornis steulleti (Aves Phorusrhacidae)|journal=PLoS ONE|date=25 May 2012|volume=7|issue=5|pages=e37701|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0037701|pmid=22662194|pmc=3360764}} 10. ^Cracraft, Joel, A review of the Bathornithidae (Aves, Gruiformes), with remarks on the relationships of the suborder Cariamae. American Museum Novitates ; no. 2326 11. ^{{cite journal |last=Alvarenga |first=H. M. F.|author2=Höfling, E. |year=2003 |title=Systematic revision of the Phorusrhacidae (Aves: Ralliformes) |journal=Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=55–91|doi=10.1590/S0031-10492003000400001}} 12. ^{{cite journal|author=Chandler, R.M. |year=1994|title=The wing of Titanis walleri (Aves: Phorusrhacidae) from the Late Blancan of Florida|journal=Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History, Biological Sciences|volume=36|pages= 175–180|url=http://ufdcweb1.uflib.ufl.edu/UF00099062}} 13. ^{{cite journal|author1=Gould, G.C. |author2=Quitmyer, I.R. |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2005|title=Titanis walleri: bones of contention|journal=Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History|volume=45|pages= 201–229|url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/bulletin/gouldquitmyerlowres.pdf}} 14. ^{{cite journal |last=Brodkorb |first=P.|year=1963|title=A giant flightless bird from the Pleistocene of Florida |journal=Auk |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=111–115 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v080n02/p0111-p0115.pdf |doi=10.2307/4082556 |jstor=4082556}} 15. ^{{Cite web|url=http://vertpaleo.org/Society-News/SVP-Paleo-News/Society-News,-Press-Releases/Press-Release-Exceptionally-preserved-fossil-gives.aspx|title=Society of Vertebrate Palaeontology|last=Degrange|first=Federico|date=|website=|access-date=}} External links{{Portal|Paleontology}}
8 : Extinct flightless birds|Bird genera|Phorusrhacinae|Pleistocene genus extinctions|Pliocene birds of North America|Pleistocene birds of North America|Fossil taxa described in 1963|Taxa named by Pierce Brodkorb |
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