“Aeneid”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Critics of the Aeneid focus on a variety of issues.^[11] The tone of the poem as a whole is a particular matter of debate; some see the poem as ultimately pessimistic and politically subversive to the Augustan regime, while others view it as a celebration of the new imperial dynasty. Virgil makes use of the symbolism of the Augustan regime, and some scholars see strong associations between Augustus and Aeneas, the one as founder and the other as re-founder of Rome. A strong teleology, or drive towards a climax, has been detected in the poem. The Aeneid is full of prophecies about the future of Rome, the deeds of Augustus, his ancestors, and famous Romans, and the Carthaginian Wars; the shield of Aeneas even depicts Augustus' victory at Actium in 31 BC. A further focus of study is the character of Aeneas. As the protagonist of the poem, Aeneas seems to constantly waver between his emotions and commitment to his prophetic duty to found Rome; critics note the breakdown of Aeneas's emotional control in the last sections of the poem where the "pious" and "righteous" Aeneas mercilessly slaughters the Latin warrior Turnus.

The Aeneid appears to have been a great success. Virgil is said to have recited Books 2, 4 and 6 to Augustus;^[12] the mention of her son, Marcellus, in book 6 apparently caused Augustus' sister Octavia to faint. The poem was unfinished when Virgil died in 19 BC.

Virgil's death and editing

According to tradition, Virgil traveled to Greece around 19 BC to revise the Aeneid. After meeting Augustus in Athens and deciding to return home, Virgil caught a fever while visiting a town near Megara. Virgil crossed to Italy by ship, weakened with disease, and died in Brundisium harbour on 21 September 19 BC, leaving a wish that the manuscript of the Aeneid was to be burned. Augustus ordered Virgil's literary executors, Lucius Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca, to disregard that wish, instead ordering the Aeneid to be published with as few editorial changes as possible.^[13] As a result, the existing text of the Aeneid may contain faults which Virgil was planning to correct before publication. However, the only obvious imperfections are a few lines of verse that are metrically unfinished (i.e., not a complete line of dactylic hexameter). Other alleged "imperfections" are subject to scholarly debate.

History

The Aeneid was written in a time of major political and social change in Rome, with the fall of the Republic and the Final War of the Roman Republic having torn through society and many Romans' faith in the "Greatness of Rome" severely faltering. However, the new emperor, Augustus Caesar, began to institute a new era of prosperity and peace, specifically through the re-introduction of traditional Roman moral values. The Aeneid was seen as reflecting this aim, by depicting the heroic Aeneas as a man devoted and loyal to his country and its prominence, rather than his own personal gains. In addition, the Aeneid gives mythic legitimization to the rule of Julius Caesar and, by extension, to his adopted son Augustus, by immortalizing the tradition that renamed Aeneas's son, Ascanius (called Ilus from Ilium, meaning Troy), Iulus, thus making him an ancestor of the gens Julia, the family of Julius Caesar, and many other great imperial descendants as part of the prophecy given to him in the Underworld. (The meter shows that the name "Iulus" is pronounced as 3 syllables, not as "Julus".)

Despite the polished and complex nature of the Aeneid (legend stating that Virgil wrote only three lines of the poem each day), the number of half-complete lines and the abrupt ending are generally seen as evidence that Virgil died before he could finish the work. Because this poem was composed and preserved in writing rather than orally, the Aeneid is more complete than most classical epics. Furthermore, it is possible to debate whether Virgil intended to rewrite and add to such lines. Some of them would be difficult to complete, and in some instances, the brevity of a line increases its dramatic impact (some arguing the violent ending as a typically Virgilian comment on the darker, vengeful side of humanity). However, these arguments may be anachronistic—half-finished lines might equally, to Roman readers, have been a clear indication of an unfinished poem and have added nothing whatsoever to the dramatic effect.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

The perceived deficiency of any account of Aeneas's marriage to Lavinia or his founding of the Roman race led some writers, such as the 15th-century Italian poet Maffeo Vegio (through his Mapheus Vegius widely printed in the Renaissance), Pier Candido Decembrio (whose attempt was never completed), Claudio Salvucci (in his 1994 epic poem The Laviniad), and Ursula K. Le Guin (in her 2008 novel Lavinia) to compose their own supplements.

Some legends state that Virgil, fearing that he would die before he had properly revised the poem, gave instructions to friends (including the current emperor, Augustus) that the Aeneid should be burned upon his death, owing to its unfinished state and because he had come to dislike one of the sequences in Book VIII, in which Venus and Vulcan made love, for its nonconformity to Roman moral virtues. The friends did not comply with Virgil's wishes and Augustus himself ordered that they be disregarded. After minor modifications, the Aeneid was published.

The first full and faithful rendering of the poem in an Anglic language is the Scots translation by Gavin Douglas—his Eneados, completed in 1513, which also included Maffeo Vegio's supplement. Even in the 20th century, Ezra Pound considered this still to be the best Aeneid translation, praising the "richness and fervour" of its language and its hallmark fidelity to the original.^[14]^[15] The English translation by the 17th-century poet John Dryden is another important version. Most classic translations, including both Douglas and Dryden, employ a rhyme scheme; most more modern attempts do not.

Recent English verse translations include those by British Poet Laureate Cecil Day-Lewis (1963) which strove to render Virgil's original hexameter line, Allen Mandelbaum (honoured by a 1973 National Book Award), Library of Congress Poet Laureate Robert Fitzgerald (1981), Stanley Lombardo (2005), Robert Fagles (2006), Sarah Ruden (2008), Barry B. Powell (2015), and David Ferry (2017).

Style

As with other classical Latin poetry, the meter is based on the length of syllables rather than the stress, though the interplay of meter and stress is also important. Virgil also incorporated such poetic devices as alliteration, onomatopoeia, synecdoche, and assonance. Furthermore, he uses personification, metaphor and simile in his work, usually to add drama and tension to the scene. An example of a simile can be found in book II when Aeneas is compared to a shepherd who stood on the high top of a rock unaware of what is going on around him.^[16] It can be seen that just as the shepherd is a protector of his sheep, so too is Aeneas to his people.

As was the rule in classical antiquity, an author's style was seen as an expression of his personality and character. Virgil's Latin has been praised for its evenness, subtlety and dignity.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

Structure

The Aeneid, like other classical epics, is written in dactylic hexameters: each line consists of six metrical feet made up of dactyls (one long syllable followed by two short syllables) and spondees (two long syllables). This epic consists of twelve books, and the narrative is broken up into three sections of four books each, respectively addressing Dido; the Trojans' arrival in Italy; and the war with the Latins. Each book has about 1,000 lines. The Aeneid comes to an abrupt ending, and scholars have speculated that Virgil died before he could finish the poem.^[17]

Themes

Pietas

The Roman ideal of pietas ("piety, dutiful respect"), which can be loosely translated from the Latin as a selfless sense of duty toward one's

filial, religious, and societal obligations, was a crux of ancient Roman morality. Throughout the Aeneid, Aeneas serves as the embodiment of

For instance, in Book 2 Aeneas describes how he carried his father Anchises from the burning city of Troy: "No help/ Or hope of help existed./

So I resigned myself, picked up my father,/ And turned my face toward the mountain range."^[20] Furthermore, Aeneas ventures into the underworld, thereby fulfilling Anchises'

wishes. His father's gratitude is presented in the text by the following lines: "Have you at last come, has that loyalty/ Your father counted on conquered the journey?

However, Aeneas's pietas extends beyond his devotion to his father: we also see several examples of his religious fervour. Aeneas is consistently subservient to the gods, even in actions opposed to his own desires, as he responds to one such divine command, "I sail to Italy not of my own free will."^[22]^[23]

In addition to his religious and familial pietas, Aeneas also displays fervent patriotism and devotion to his people, particularly in a military capacity. For instance, as he and his followers leave Troy, Aeneas swears that he will "take up/ The combat once again. We shall not all/ Die this day unavenged."^[24]

Aeneas is a symbol of pietas in all of its forms, serving as a moral paragon to whom a Roman should aspire.

Divine intervention

One of the most recurring themes in the Aeneid is that of divine intervention.^[25] Throughout the poem, the gods are constantly influencing the main characters and trying to change and impact the outcome, regardless of the fate that they all know will occur.^[26] For example, Juno comes down and acts as a phantom Aeneas to drive Turnus away from the real Aeneas and all of his rage from the death of Pallas.^[27] Even though Juno knows in the end that Aeneas will triumph over Turnus, she does all she can to delay and avoid this outcome.

Divine intervention occurs multiple times, in Book 4 especially. Aeneas falls in love with Dido, delaying his ultimate fate of traveling to Italy. However, it is actually the gods who inspired the love, as Juno plots:

Juno is speaking to Venus, making an agreement and influencing the lives and emotions of both Dido and Aeneas. Later in the same book, Jupiter steps in and restores what is the true fate and path for Aeneas, sending Mercury down to Aeneas's dreams, telling him that he must travel to Italy and leave his new-found lover. As Aeneas later pleads with Dido:

Several of the gods try to intervene against the powers of fate, even though they know what the eventual outcome will be. The interventions are really just distractions to continue the conflict and postpone the inevitable. If the gods represent humans, just as the human characters engage in conflicts and power struggles, so too do the gods.

Fate

Fate, described as a preordained destiny that men and gods have to follow, is a major theme in the Aeneid. One example is when Aeneas is reminded of his fate through Jupiter and Mercury while he is falling in love with Dido. Mercury urges, "Think of your expectations of your heir,/ Iulus, to whom the whole Italian realm, the land/ Of Rome, are due."^[30] Mercury is referring to Aeneas's preordained fate to found Rome, as well as Rome's preordained fate to rule the world:

It is important to recognize that there is a marked difference between fate and divine intervention, as even though the gods might remind mortals of their eventual fate, the gods themselves are not in control of it.^[32] For example, the opening lines of the poem specify that Aeneas "came to Italy by destiny", but is also harassed by the separate force of "baleful Juno in her sleepless rage".^[33] Even though Juno might intervene, Aeneas's fate is set in stone and cannot be changed.

Later in Book 6, when Aeneas visits the underworld, his father Anchises introduces him to the larger fate of the Roman people, as contrasted against his own personal fate to found Rome:

Violence and conflict

From the very beginning of the Aeneid, violence and conflict are used as a means of survival and conquest. Aeneas's voyage is caused by the Trojan War and the destruction of

Troy.^[35] Aeneas describes to Dido in Book 2 the massive amount of destruction that occurs after the Greeks sneak into Troy. He recalls that he asks his men to "defend/ A city

lost in flames. Come, let us die,/ We'll make a rush into the thick of it."^[36]

This is one of the first examples of how violence begets violence: even though the Trojans know they have lost the battle, they continue to fight for their country.

This violence continues as Aeneas makes his journey. Dido kills herself in an excessively violent way over a pyre in order to end and escape her worldly problem: being heartbroken

over the departure of her "husband" Aeneas. Queen Dido's suicide is a double edged sword. While releasing herself from the burden of her pain through violence, her last words

Furthermore, her people, hearing of their queen's death, have only one avenue on which to direct the blame: the already-departed Trojans. Thus, Dido's request of her people

and her people's only recourse for closure align in their mutual hate for Aeneas and his Trojans. In effect, Dido's violent suicide leads to the violent nature of the

Finally, when Aeneas arrives in Latium, conflict inevitably arises.^[39] Juno sends Alecto, one of the Furies, to cause Turnus to go against Aeneas. In the ensuing battles, Turnus

kills Pallas, who is supposed to be under Aeneas's protection. This act of violence causes Aeneas to be consumed with fury. Although Turnus asks for mercy in their final encounter,

This final act of violence shows how Turnus' violence—the act of killing Pallas—inevitably leads to more violence and his own death.

It is possible that the recurring theme of violence in the Aeneid is a subtle commentary on the bloody violence contemporary readers would have just experienced during the Late Republican

Propaganda

Written during the reign of Augustus, the Aeneid presents the hero Aeneas as a strong and powerful leader. The favorable representation of Aeneas parallels

Augustus in that it portrays his reign in a progressive and admirable light, and allows Augustus to be positively associated with the portrayal of Aeneas.^[42]

Although Virgil's patron Maecenas was obviously not Augustus himself, he was still a high figure within Augustus' administration and could have personally

In the Aeneid, Aeneas is portrayed as the singular hope for the rebirth of the Trojan people. Charged with the preservation of his people by divine authority, Aeneas is symbolic of Augustus' own accomplishments in establishing order after the long period of chaos of the Roman civil wars. Augustus as the light of savior and the last

hope of the Roman people is a parallel to Aeneas as the savior of the Trojans. This parallel functions as propaganda in support of Augustus,^[43]^[44] as it depicts the Trojan people,

future Romans themselves, as uniting behind a single leader who will lead them out of ruin:

Later in Book 6, Aeneas travels to the underworld where he sees his father Anchises, who tells him of his own destiny as well as that of

the Roman people. Anchises describes how Aeneas's descendant Romulus will found the great city of Rome,

Virgil writes about the fated future of Lavinium, the city that Aeneas will found, which will in turn lead directly to the

golden reign of Augustus. Virgil is using a form of literary propaganda to demonstrate the Augustan

regime's destiny to bring glory and peace to Rome. Rather than use Aeneas indirectly as a positive parallel

to Augustus as in other parts of the poem, Virgil outright praises the emperor in Book 6, referring to Augustus as a harbinger for the glory

Allegory

The poem abounds with smaller and greater allegories. Two of the debated allegorical sections pertain to the exit from the underworld and to Pallas's belt.

Aeneas's leaving the underworld through the gate of false dreams has been variously interpreted: One suggestion is that the passage simply refers to the time of day at which Aeneas returned to the world of the living; another is that it implies that all of Aeneas's actions in the remainder of the poem are somehow "false". In an extension of the latter interpretation, it has been suggested that Virgil is conveying that the history of the world since the foundation of Rome is but a lie. Other scholars claim that Virgil is establishing that the theological implications of the preceding scene (an apparent system of reincarnation) are not to be taken as literal.^[47]

This section has been interpreted to mean that for the entire passage of the poem, Aeneas who symbolizes pietas (reason) in a moment becomes furor (fury), thus destroying what is essentially the primary theme of the poem itself. Many have argued over these two sections. Some claim that Virgil meant to change them before he died, while others find that the location of the two passages, at the very end of the so-called Volume I (Books 1–6, the Odyssey), and Volume II (Books 7–12, the Iliad), and their short length, which contrasts with the lengthy nature of the poem, are evidence that Virgil placed them purposefully there.

Influence

The Aeneid is a cornerstone of the Western canon, and early (at least by the 2nd century AD) became one of the essential elements of a Latin education,^[49] usually required to be memorized.^[50] Even after the decline of the Roman Empire, it "remained central to a Latin education".^[51] In Latin-Christian culture, the Aeneid was one of the canonical texts, subjected to commentary as a philological and educational study,^[52] with the most complete commentary having been written by the 4th-century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus.^[53] It was widely held to be the pinnacle of Latin literature, much in the same way that the Iliad was seen to be supreme in Greek literature.

The strong influence of the Aeneid has been identified in the development of European vernacular literatures—some English works that show its influence being Beowulf, Layamon's Brut (through the source text Historia Regum Britanniae), The Faerie Queene and Milton's Paradise Lost. The Italian poet Dante Alighieri was himself profoundly influenced by the Aeneid, so much so that his magnum opus The Divine Comedy, itself widely considered central to the western canon, includes a number of quotations from and allusions to the Aeneid and features the author Virgil as a major character – the guide of Dante through the realms of the Inferno and Purgatorio. Another continental work displaying the influence of the Aeneid is the 16th-century Portuguese epic Os Lusíadas, written by Luís de Camões and dealing with Vasco da Gama's voyage to India.

The importance of Latin education itself was paramount in Western culture: "from 1600 to 1900, the Latin school was at the center of European education, wherever it was found"; within that Latin school, Virgil was taught at the advanced level and, in 19th-century England, special editions of Virgil were awarded to students who distinguished themselves.^[54] In the United States, Virgil and specifically the Aeneid were taught in the fourth year of a Latin sequence, at least until the 1960s;^[55] the current (2011) Advanced Placement curriculum in Latin continues to assign a central position to the poem: "The AP Latin: Virgil Exam is designed to test the student's ability to read, translate, understand, analyze, and interpret the lines of the Aeneid that appear on the course syllabus in Latin."^[56]

Many phrases from this poem entered the Latin language, much as passages from Shakespeare and Alexander Pope have entered the English language. One example is from Aeneas's reaction to a painting of the sack of Troy: Sunt lacrimae rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt—"These are the tears of things, and our mortality cuts to the heart" (Aeneid I, 462). The influence is also visible in very modern work: Brian Friel's Translations (a play written in the 1980s, set in 19th-century Ireland), makes references to the classics throughout and ends with a passage from the Aeneid:

One of the first operas based on the story of the Aeneid was the English composer Henry Purcell's Dido and Aeneas (1688). The opera is famous for its aria Dido's Lament ('When I am laid in earth'), of which the first line of the melody is inscribed on the wall by the door of the Purcell Room concert hall in London.

The story of the Aeneid was made into the grand opera Les Troyens (1856–1858) by the French composer Hector Berlioz.

In the musical Spring Awakening, based on the play of the same title by Frank Wedekind, schoolboys study the Latin text, and the first verse of Book 1 is incorporated into the number "All That's Known".

Ursula Le Guin's 2008 novel Lavinia is a free prose retelling of the last six books of the Aeneid narrated by and centered on Aeneas' Latin wife Lavinia, a minor character in the epic poem. It carries the action forward to the crowning of Aeneas' younger son Silvius as king of Latium.

A seventeenth-century popular broadside ballad also appears to recount events from books 1–4 of the Aeneid, focusing mostly on the relationship between Aeneas and Dido. The ballad, "The Wandering Prince of Troy", presents many similar elements as Virgil's epic, but alters Dido's final sentiments toward Aeneas, as well as presenting an interesting end for Aeneas himself.^[58]

Parodies and travesties

See also

Footnotes

1. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7NVFUi7G6TEC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=29-19%20BC&f=false|last=Magill|first=Frank N.|page=226|title=The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=1135457409}}
2. ^{{cite book |last=Gaskell |first=Philip |authorlink=Philip Gaskell |date=1999 |title=Landmarks in Classical Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8wx2JHE_7j0C&pg=PA161 |location=Chicago |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |page=161 |isbn=1-57958-192-7}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?ParagraphID=dto |title=History of Latin Literature |publisher=HistoryWorld |accessdate=December 5, 2016}}
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2008/05/new-translation-aeneid-restores-originals-humor-meter |title=New translation of 'Aeneid' restores Virgil's wordplay and original meter |last=Aloy |first=Daniel |publisher=Cornell Chronicle |date=May 22, 2008 |accessdate=December 5, 2016}}
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320anclit/chapters/11verg.htm |title=Chapter 11: Vergil and The Aeneid |last=Damen |first=Mark |date=2004 |accessdate=December 5, 2016}}
6. ^{{cite web|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/latinvergil/a/whyaeneid.htm |title=Why Read the Aeneid in Latin? |last=Gill |first=N. S. |publisher=About.com |accessdate=December 5, 2016}}
7. ^E.G. Knauer, "Vergil's Aeneid and Homer", Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 5 (1964) 61–84. Originating in Servius's observation, tufts.edu
8. ^The majority of the Odyssey is devoted to events on Ithaca, not to Odysseus' wanderings, so that the second half of the Odyssey very broadly corresponds to the second half of the Aeneid (the hero fights to establish himself in his new/renewed home). Joseph Farrell has observed, "... let us begin with the traditional view that Virgil's epic divides into 'Odyssean' and 'Iliadic' halves. Merely accepting this idea at face value is to mistake for a destination what Virgil clearly offered as the starting-point of a long and wondrous journey" ("The Virgilian Intertext", Cambridge Companion to Virgil, p. 229).
9. ^{{cite book|author1=Publius Vergilius Maro|authorlink=Virgil|title=The Aeneid, translated by Robert Fagles, introduction by Bernard Knox|date=2006|publisher=Viking Penguin|location=New York, New York 10014, U.S.A.|isbn=978-0-14-310513-8|page=26|edition=deluxe}}
10. ^{{cite journal|last=Glazewski|first=Johanna|year=1972|title=The Function of Vergil's Funeral Games|journal=The Classical World|volume=66|issue=2|pages=85–96|jstor=4347751|doi=10.2307/4347751}}
11. ^Fowler, "Virgil", in Hornblower and Spawnforth (eds), Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd edition, 1996, pp. 1605–06
12. ^Fowler, pg.1603
13. ^{{cite encyclopedia |last=Sellar |first=William Young |authorlink=William Young Sellar |author2=Glover, Terrot Reaveley |title=Virgil |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediabri28chisrich#page/112/mode/2up |accessdate=7 June 2012 |edition=11th |year=1911 |page=112 |volume=28}}
14. ^Pound and Spann; Confucius to Cummings: An Anthology of Poetry, New Directions, p. 34.
15. ^See Emily Wilson Passions and a Man {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080914044446/http://www.powells.com/review/2007_01_11.html |date=14 September 2008 }}, New Republic Online (11 January 2007), which cites Pound's claim that the translation even improved on the Virgil because Douglas had "heard the sea".
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/VirgilAeneidII.htm#_Toc536009313 |title=Virgil:Aeneid II |publisher=Poetryintranslation.com |date= |accessdate=27 November 2012}}
17. ^Fitzgerald 1990, 416–17.
18. ^Search of the Latin from perseus.tufts.edu
19. ^Hahn, E. Adelaide. "Pietas versus Violentia in the Aeneid." The Classical Weekly, 25.2 (1931): 9–13.
20. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 2.1043–1047.
21. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 6.921–923.
22. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.499.
23. ^McLeish, Kenneth. "Dido, Aeneas, and the Concept of 'Pietas'." Greece and Rome 19.2 (1972): 127–135.
24. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 2.874–876.
25. ^Coleman, Robert. "The Gods in the Aeneid." Greece and Rome 29.2 (Oct 1982): 143–168; also see Block, E. "The Effects of Divine Manifestation on the Reader's Perspective in Vergil's Aeneid" (Salem, NH), 1984.
26. ^Duckworth, George E. "Fate and Free Will in Vergil's Aeneid". The Classical Journal 51.8 (1956): 357–364.
27. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 10.890–966.
28. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.173–177.
29. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.492–499.
30. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.373–375.
31. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.312–315.
32. ^Fitzgerald, Robert, translator and postscript. "Virgil's The Aeneid". New York: Vintage Books (1990). 415.
33. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 1.3–8.
34. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 6.1203–1210.
35. ^Scully, Stephen. "Refining Fire in "Aeneid" 8." Vergilius (1959–) 46 (2000): 93–113.
36. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.469–471.
37. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 4.864–868.
38. ^Fitzgerald, Robert, translator and postscript. "Virgil's The Aeneid". New York: Vintage Books (1990). 407.
39. ^Hahn, E. Adelaide. "Pietas versus Violentia in the Aeneid." The Classical Weekly, 25.2 (1931): 9.
40. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 12.1291–1294.
41. ^Pogorselski, Randall J. "The "Reassurance of Fratricide" in The Aeneid." The American Journal of Philology 130.2 (Summer 2009): 261–289.
42. ^Fitzgerald, Robert, translator and postscript. "Virgil's The Aeneid". New York: Vintage Books (1990). 412–414.
43. ^Grebe, Sabine. "Augustus' Divine Authority and Virgil's Aeneid." Vergilius (1959–) 50 (2004): 35–62.
44. ^Scully, Stephen. "Refining Fire in Aeneid 8." Vergilius (1959–) 46 (2000): 91–113.
45. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 2.1036–1040.
46. ^Fitzgerald 1983, 6.1058–1067.
47. ^Trans. David West, "The Aeneid" (1991) xxiii.
48. ^The anecdote, in which the poet read the passage in Book VI in praise of Octavia's late son Marcellus, and Octavia fainted with grief, was recorded in the late fourth-century vita of Virgil by Aelius Donatus.
49. ^{{cite book|last=Kleinberg|first=Aviad M.|title=Flesh Made Word: Saints' Stories and the Western Imagination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9SFs9Tvm1UC&pg=PA68|year=2008|publisher=Harvard UP|isbn=978-0-674-02647-6|page=68}}
50. ^{{cite book|last=Montaner|first=Carlos Alberto|title=Twisted Roots: Latin America's Living Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eybIGmuny64C&pg=PA118|year=2003|publisher=Algora|isbn=978-0-87586-260-6|page=118}}
51. ^{{cite book|last=Horsfall|first=Nicholas|title=A Companion to the Study of Virgil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EsxUp4Cy3q8C&pg=PA303|year=2000|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-11951-2|page=303}}
52. ^{{cite book|last=Burman|first=Thomas E.|title=Reading the Qur'ān in Latin Christendom, 1140–1560|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtHfRxmCPesC&pg=PA84|year=2009|publisher=U of Pennsylvania P|isbn=978-0-8122-2062-9|page=84}}
53. ^{{cite journal|last=Savage|first=John J.H.|year=1932|title=The Manuscripts of the Commentary of Servius Danielis on Virgil|journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology|volume=43|pages=77–121|jstor=310668}}
54. ^{{cite book|last1=Grafton|first1=Anthony|last2=Most|first2=Glenn W.|last3=Settis|first3=Salvatore|title=The Classical Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbqF8z2bq3sC&pg=PA297|year=2010|publisher=Harvard UP|isbn=978-0-674-03572-0|pages=294–97}}
55. ^{{cite book|last=Skinner|first=Marilyn B.|title=A Companion to Catullus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2buHe449NoAC&pg=PT448|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley|isbn=978-1-4443-3925-3|pages=448â??49}}
56. ^{{cite web|url=http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap-latin-course-description.pdf|title=Latin : Virgil; Course Description|year=2011|publisher=College Board|page=14|accessdate=30 August 2011}}
57. ^{{cite journal|last=McGrath|first=F. C.|year=1990|title=Brian Friel and the Politics of the Anglo-Irish Language|journal=Colby Quarterly|volume=26|issue=4|page=247|url=http://digitalcommons.colby.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2808&context=cq&sei-redir=1}}
58. ^Ballad Full Text at the English Broadside Ballad Archive
59. ^ {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414155455/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~tarn/projects/rr51-b.html |date=14 April 2009 }}
60. ^{{cite web|title=The Aeneid|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11805/|work=V.I. Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine|publisher=World Digital Library|accessdate=25 December 2013}}
61. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.animator.ru/db/?ver=eng&p=show_film&fid=6704 |title=Russian animation in letters and figures | Films | ╚ENEIDA╩ |publisher=Animator.ru |date= |accessdate=27 November 2012}}

Virgil's death and editing

History

Style

Structure

Themes

Pietas

Divine intervention

Fate

Violence and conflict

Propaganda

Allegory

Influence

Parodies and travesties

See also

Footnotes

Further reading

External links

Translations

Text

Sequels

Illustrations

Commentary