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词条 French orthography
释义

  1. Alphabet

  2. Diacritics

  3. Ligatures

     Œ  Æ 

  4. Digraphs and trigraphs

  5. Sound to spelling correspondences

      Consonants and combinations of consonant letters   Vowels and combinations of vowel letters  Combinations of vowel and consonant letters 

  6. Words from Greek

  7. History

     Roman  Old French  Middle French  Classical French  Modern French 

  8. Punctuation

  9. See also

  10. Notes

  11. References

  12. Bibliography

  13. External links

{{French language}}{{IPA notice}}

French orthography encompasses the spelling and punctuation of the French language. It is based on a combination of phonemic and historical principles. The spelling of words is largely based on the pronunciation of Old French c. 1100–1200 CE and has stayed more or less the same since then, despite enormous changes to the pronunciation of the language in the intervening years. This has resulted in a complicated relationship between spelling and sound, especially for vowels, a multitude of silent letters, and a large number of homophones (e.g., {{wiktfra|saint}}/{{wiktfra|sein}}/{{wiktfra|sain}}/{{wiktfra|seing}}/{{wiktfra|ceins}}/{{wiktfra|ceint}} (all pronounced {{IPA-fr|sɛ̃|}}), {{wiktfra|sang}}/{{wiktfra|sans}}/{{wiktfra|cent}} (all pronounced {{IPA-fr|sɑ̃|}})). Later attempts to respell some words in accordance with their Latin etymologies further increased the number of silent letters (e.g., {{wiktfra|temps}} vs. older {{wiktfra|tens}} – compare English "tense", which reflects the original spelling – and {{wiktfra|vingt}} vs. older {{wiktfra|vint}}). Nevertheless, there are rules governing French orthography which allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when pronouncing French words from their written forms. The reverse operation, producing written forms from a pronunciation, is much more ambiguous.

Alphabet

The French alphabet is based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet, uppercase and lowercase, with five diacritics and two orthographic ligatures.

LetterNameName (IPA)Diacritics and ligatures
A a /a/}}Àà, Ââ, Ææ
B bé /be/}}
C cé /se/}}Çç
D dé /de/}}
E e /ə/}}Éé, Èè, Êê, Ëë
F effe /ɛf/}}
G gé /ʒe/}}
H ache /aʃ/}}
I i /i/}}Îî, Ïï
J ji /ʒi/}}
K ka /ka/}}
L elle /ɛl/}}
M emme /ɛm/}}
N enne /ɛn/}}
O o /o/}}Ôô, Œœ
P pé /pe/}}
Q qu /ky/}}
R erre /ɛʁ/}}
S esse /ɛs/}}
T té /te/}}
U u /y/}}Ùù, Ûû, Üü
V vé /ve/}}
W double vé /dubləve/}}
X ixe /iks/}}
Y i grec /iɡʁɛk/}}Ÿÿ
Z zède /zɛd/}}

The letters {{angbr|w}} and {{angbr|k}} are rarely used except in loanwords and regional words. The phoneme {{IPA|/w/}} sound is usually written {{angbr|ou}}; the {{IPA|/k/}} sound is usually written {{angbr|c}} anywhere but before {{angbr|e, i, y}}, {{angbr|qu}} before {{angbr|e, i, y}}, and sometimes {{angbr|que}} at the ends of words. However, {{angbr|k}} is common in the metric prefix kilo- (originally from Greek {{wiktell|χίλια}} khilia "a thousand"): kilogramme, kilomètre, kilowatt, kilohertz, etc.

Diacritics

The usual diacritics are the acute ({{angbr|´}}, accent aigu), the grave ({{angbr|`}}, accent grave), the circumflex ({{angbr|ˆ}}, accent circonflexe), the diaeresis ({{angbr|¨}}, tréma), and the cedilla ({{angbr|¸ }}, cédille). Diacritics have no effect on the primary alphabetical order.

  • Acute accent or accent aigu (é): over e, indicates uniquely the sound {{IPA|/e/}}. An é in modern French is often used where a combination of e and a consonant, usually s, would have been used formerly: écouter < escouter.
  • Grave accent or accent grave (à, è, ù): over a or u, used primarily to distinguish homophones: à ("to") vs. a ("has"), ou ("or") vs. où ("where"; the letter ù is used only in this word). Over an e, indicates the sound {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.
  • Circumflex or accent circonflexe (â, ê, î, ô, û): over a, e and o, indicates the sound {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}, respectively, but the distinction a {{IPA|/a/}} vs. â {{IPA|/ɑ/}} tends to disappear in Parisian French, so they are both pronounced [a]. In Belgian French, ê is pronounced {{IPA|[ɛː]}}. Most often, it indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually an s or a vowel): château < castel, fête < feste, sûr < seur, dîner < disner (in medieval manuscripts many letters were often written as diacritical marks: the circumflex for "s" and the tilde for "n" are examples). It has also come to be used to distinguish homophones: du ("of the") vs. dû (past participle of devoir "to have to do something (pertaining to an act)"); however dû is in fact written thus because of a dropped e: deu (see Circumflex in French). Since the 1990 orthographic changes, the circumflex on most i's and u's may be dropped when it does not serve to distinguish homophones: chaîne becomes chaine but sûr (sure) does not change because of sur (on).
  • Diaeresis or tréma (ë, ï, ü, ÿ): over e, i, u or y, indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: naïve, Noël. A diaeresis on y only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts. Some proper names in which ÿ appears include Aÿ (commune in département de la Marne, formerly Aÿ-Champagne), Rue des Cloÿs (alley in the 18th arrondissement of Paris), Croÿ (family name and hotel on the Boulevard Raspail, Paris), Château du Feÿ (near Joigny), Ghÿs (name of Flemish origin spelt Ghijs where ij in handwriting looked like ÿ to French clerks), L'Haÿ-les-Roses (commune between Paris and Orly airport), Pierre Louÿs (author), Moÿ-de-l'Aisne (commune in département de l'Aisne and family name), and Le Blanc de Nicolaÿ (an insurance company in eastern France). The diaeresis on u appears in the Biblical proper names Archélaüs, Capharnaüm, Emmaüs, Ésaü, and Saül, as well as French names such as Haüy. Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic changes, the diaeresis in words containing guë (such as aiguë or ciguë) may be moved onto the u: aigüe, cigüe, and by analogy may be used in verbs such as j'argüe. In addition, words coming from German retain their umlaut (ä, ö and ü) if applicable but use often French pronunciation, such as Kärcher (trademark of a pressure washer).
  • Cedilla or cédille (ç): under c, indicates that it is pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} rather than /k/. Thus je lance "I throw" (with c = {{IPA|[s]}} before e), je lançais "I was throwing" (c would be pronounced {{IPA|[k]}} before a without the cedilla). The cedilla is only used before the vowels a, o or u, for example, ça /sa/; it is never used before the vowels e, i, or y, since these three vowels always produce a soft /s/ sound (ce, ci, cycle).

The tilde diacritical mark ( ˜ ) above n is occasionally used in French for words and names of Spanish origin that have been incorporated into the language (e.g., cañon, El Niño). Like the other diacritics, the tilde has no impact on the primary alphabetical order.

Diacritics are often omitted on capital letters, mainly for technical reasons. It is widely believed that they are not required; however both the Académie française and the Office québécois de la langue française reject this usage and confirm that "in French, the accent has full orthographic value",[1] except for acronyms but not for abbreviations (e.g., CEE, ALENA, but É.-U.).[2] Nevertheless, diacritics are often ignored in word games, including crosswords, Scrabble, and Des chiffres et des lettres.

Ligatures

The two ligatures œ and æ have orthographic value. For determining alphabetical order, these ligatures are treated like the sequences oe and ae.

Œ

({{Lang-fr|o, e dans l'o}} or o, e collés/liés) This ligature is a mandatory contraction of {{angbr|oe}} in certain words. Some of these are native French words, with the pronunciation {{IPA|/œ/}} or {{IPA|/ø/}}, e.g., sœur "sister" {{IPA|/sœʁ/}}, œuvre "work (of art)" {{IPA|/œvʁ/}}. Note that it usually appears in the combination œu; œil "eye" is an exception. Many of these words were originally written with the digraph eu; the o in the ligature represents a sometimes artificial attempt to imitate the Latin spelling: Latin bovem > Old French buef/beuf > Modern French bœuf.

Œ is also used in words of Greek origin, as the Latin rendering of the Greek diphthong οι, e.g., cœlacanthe "coelacanth". These words used to be pronounced with the vowel {{IPA|/e/}}, but in recent years a spelling pronunciation with {{IPA|/ø/}} has taken hold, e.g., œsophage {{IPA|/ezɔfaʒ/}} or {{IPA|/øzɔfaʒ/}}, Œdipe {{IPA|/edip/}} or {{IPA|/ødip/}} etc. The pronunciation with {{IPA|/e/}} is often seen to be more correct.

When œ is found after the letter c, the c can be pronounced {{IPA|/k/}} in some cases (cœur), or {{IPA|/s/}} in others (cœlacanthe).

The ligature œ is not used when both letters contribute different sounds. For example, when {{angbr|o}} is part of a prefix (coexister), or when {{angbr|e}} is part of a suffix (minoen), or in the word moelle and its derivatives.[3]

Æ

({{Lang-fr|a, e dans l'a}} or a, e collés/liés) This ligature is rare, appearing only in some words of Latin and Greek origin like tænia, ex æquo, cæcum, æthuse (as named dog’s parsley).[4] It generally represents the vowel {{IPA|/e/}}, like {{angbr|é}}.

The sequence {{angbr|ae}} appears in loanwords where both sounds are heard, as in maestro and paella.[5]

Digraphs and trigraphs

{{Expand section|date=August 2008}}

French digraphs and trigraphs have both historical and phonological origins. In the first case, it is a vestige of the spelling in the word's original language (usually Latin or Greek) maintained in modern French, for example, the use of {{angbr|ph}} in words like téléphone, {{angbr|th}} in words like théorème, or {{angbr|ch}} in chaotique. In the second case, a digraph is due to an archaic pronunciation, such as {{angbr|eu}}, {{angbr|au}}, {{angbr|oi}}, {{angbr|ai}}, and {{angbr|œu}}, or is merely a convenient way to expand the twenty-six-letter alphabet to cover all relevant phonemes, as in {{angbr|ch}}, {{angbr|on}}, {{angbr|an}}, {{angbr|ou}}, {{angbr|un}}, and {{angbr|in}}. Some cases are a mixture of these or are used for purely pragmatic reasons, such as {{angbr|ge}} for {{IPA|/ʒ/}} in il mangeait ('he ate'), where the {{angbr|e}} serves to indicate a "soft" {{angbr|g}} inherent in the verb's root.

Sound to spelling correspondences

{{Hatnote|Note: Some exceptions apply to the rules governing the pronunciation of word-final consonants. See Liaison (French) for details.}}{{Original research section|date=April 2012}}

Consonants and combinations of consonant letters

Spelling Major value
(IPA) 		Examples of major value Minor values
(IPA) 		Examples of minor value Exceptions
-bs, -cs (in the plural of words ending in
silent b or c), -ds, -fs (in œufs and bœufs,
and words ending with silent -f in the singular), ‑gs, -ps, -ts		 Ø /plɔ̃/|plombs}}, {{H:title| /blɑ̃/|blancs}}, {{H:title|/pʁɑ̃/ |prends}}, {{H:title| /ø/, /œf/|œufs}}, {{H:title| /sɛʁ/|cerfs}}, {{H:title|/lɔ̃/ |longs}} ,{{H:title|/dʁa/ | draps}}, {{H:title|/a.ʃa/|achats}}
b, bb elsewhere b}}/ba.lɔ̃/|ballon}}, abbé
before a voiceless consonant p}}/ap.sɔ.ly/|absolu}}, observer, subtile
finally Ø plomb, Colomb b}}/ʒa.kɔb/ |Jacob}}
çs}}/sa/|ça}}, garçon, reçu
c before e, i, y s}}/si.klon/|cyclone}} , loquace, douce, ciel, ceux
initially/medially elsewhere k}}/ka.ba/|cabas}} , crasse, cœur, sacrés}} cœlacanthe ɡ}} second
finally k}}/lak/ | lac}}, donc Ø /ta.ba/ | tabac}}, blanc, caoutchoucɡ}} zinc
cc before e, i, y k}}{{IPA link|s}}//ak.sɛ/|accès}}
elsewhere k}}/a.kɔʁ/|accord}}
chʃ}}/ʃa/ |chat}} , douchek}} (often in words of Greek origin[6]) chaotique, chlore, varech Ø yacht, almanach
-ctk}}{{IPA link|t}}//di.ʁɛkt/ |direct}} , correct Ø respect, suspect, instinct, succinct
d, dd elsewhere d}}/du/ |doux}} , adresse, addition
finally Ø /pje/|pied}} , accordd}} David, sud
f, fff}}/fɛ/|fait}} , affoler, soif Ø clef, cerf, nerf
g before e, i, y ʒ}}/ʒɑ̃/|gens}} , mangerdʒ}} gin, management, adagio
initially/medially elsewhere ɡ}}/ɡɛ̃/|gain}} , glacier
finally Ø /ʒu/ , /ʒuɡ/| joug}}, long, sangɡ}} zigzag
gg before e, i, y ɡ}}{{IPA link|ʒ}}//syɡ.ʒe.ʁe/|suggérer}}
elsewhere ɡ}}/a.ɡʁa.ve/|aggraver}}
gnɲ}}/mɔ̃.taɲ/|montagne}} , agneau, gnôleɡ}}{{IPA link|n}}/ cognitif, gnose, gnou
h Ø /a.bit/ |habite}} , hiverx}} Hainan
{{IPAslink|h}} ahaner (also Ø)
jʒ}}/ʒu/ | joue}}, jeterdʒ}} jean, jazzj}} fjord
{{IPAslink|x}} jota
kk}}/al.ki.le/|alkyler}} , kilomètre, bifteck Ø skunks
l, lll}}/lɛ/, /le/ |lait}} , allier, il, royal, matériel Ø (occasionally finally) cul, fusil, saoul Ø fils, aulne, aulx
(see also -il)
m, mmm}}/mu/ |mou}} , pomme Ø automne, condamner
n, nnn}}/nu.vɛl/ |nouvel}} , panne
ng (in loanwords)ŋ}}/paʁ.kiŋ/|parking}} , camping
p, pp elsewhere p}}/pɛ̃/|pain}}, appel
finally Ø coup, trop p}}/kap/ |cap}}, cep
phf}}/te.le.fɔn/|téléphone}} , photo
pt initially p}}{{IPA link|t}}//pte.ʁɔ.dak.til/, /pte.ʁo.dak.til/ |ptérodactyle}} , ptôse
medially p}}{{IPA link|t}}//a.dap.te/|adapter}} , exceptert}} baptême, compter
finally p}}{{IPA link|t}}//kɔ̃.sɛpt/| concept}} Ø pt (also /{{IPA link>p}}{{IPA link|t}}/)t}} sept
q (see qu)k}}/kɔk/|coq}} , cinq, piqûre, Qatar
r, rrʁ}}/ʁa/ |rat}} , barre Ø monsieur, gars
(see also -er)
s initially
medially next to a consonant
or after a nasal vowel 		s}}/sakʁ/|sacre}} , estime, penser, instituerz}} Alsace, transat, transiter ʃ}} esque
elsewhere between two vowels z}}/ʁoz/, /ʁɔz/ |rose}} rose, paysages}} antisèche, parasol, vraisemblable
finally Ø /dɑ̃/|dans}} , repass}} fils, sens (noun), os (singular), ours
sc before e, i, y s}}/sjɑ̃s/|science}}ʃ}} fasciste (also {{IPAslink|s}})
elsewhere s}}{{IPA link|k}}//skʁipt/|script}}
schʃ}}/ʃlaɡ/|schlague}} , haschisch, esches}}{{IPA link|k}}/ schizoïde, ischion, æschne
sss}}/be.se/, /bɛ.se/ |baisser}}, passer
t, tt elsewhere t}}/tu/ |tout}} , attentes}} nation (see ti + vowel)
finally Ø /tɑ̃/|tant}} , raffutt}} est (direction), brut, yaourt
tcht͡ʃ}}/tʃat/|tchat}}, match
tht}}/tɛm/|thème}}, thermique, aneththme, bizuth
{{IPAslink>s}} thread
vv}}/vil/| ville}}, vannef}} leitmotiv
ww}}/ki.wi/|kiwi}} , week-end, whiskyv}} wagon, schwa s}} Law
(see also ow, ew)
x initially
next to a voiceless consonant
phonologically finally		k}}{{IPA link|s}}//ɡzi.lɔ.fɔn/, /ksi.lɔ.fɔn/|xylophone}}, expansion, connexeɡ}}{{IPA link|z}}/ xénophobie, Xavier k}} xhosa, xérès (also /{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|s}}/)
medially elsewhere ɡ}}{{IPA link|z}}//ɛɡ.zi.ʒɑ̃s/ |exigence}} , exulters}}
{{IPAslink|z}}
/{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|s}}/		 soixante, Bruxelles
deuxième
galaxie, maximum
finally Ø /pɛ/|paix}} , deuxk}}{{IPA link|s}}/ index, pharynx s}} six, dix, coccyx
xc before e, i, y k}}{{IPA link|s}}//ɛk.si.te/|exciter}}
elsewhere k}}{{IPA link|s}}{{IPA link|k}}//ɛk.ska.va.sjɔ̃/|excavation}}
z elsewhere z}}/zɛ̃/|zain}} , gazette
finally Ø /ʃe/ |chez}}z}} gaz
{{IPAslink|s}} quartz

Vowels and combinations of vowel letters

Spelling Major value
(IPA) 		Examples of major value Minor values
(IPA) 		Examples of minor value Exceptions
a, àa}} patte, arable, là, déjà ɑ}} araser, base, condamner ɔ}} yacht
{{IPAslink|o}} football
{{IPAslink|e}} lady
âɑ}} château, pâté a}}ât (also {{IPAslink>ɑ}}), parlâmes, liâtes, menât (simple past and imperfect subjunctive verb forms ending in -âmes, -âtes, and -ât)
ae, æe}} ex-æquo, cæcum, reggae a}}{{IPA link|ɛ}}/ maestro
/{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|e}}/ paella
aiɛ}}
({{IPAslink|e}})		 vrai, faite
ai, aiguille, baisser, gai, quai 		e}} lançai, mangerai (future and simple past verb forms ending in -ai or -rai) ə}} faisan, faisons,[7] (and all other conjugated forms of faire which are spelt fais- and followed by a pronounced vowel)
aîɛ}} maître, chaîne
aïa}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|i}}/ naïf, haïr a}}{{IPA link|j}}/ aïe, aïeul, haïe, païen
aieɛ}} baie, monnaie ɛ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ paie
ao, aô elsewhere a}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|ɔ}}/aorte, extraordinaire (also {{IPAslink>ɔ}})a}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|o}}/ baobab a}} faonne, paonneau
{{IPAslink|o}} Saône
phonologically finally a}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|o}}/ cacao, chaos o}} curaçao
aou, aoûa}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|u}}/ caoutchouc, aoûtien, yaourt u}} saoul, août
au elsewhere o}} haut, augure
before r ɔ}}aure, Aurélie, Laurent (also {{IPAslink>o}})
ay elsewhere ɛ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ayons, essayer (also /{{IPA link>e}}{{IPA link|j}}/)e}}{{IPA link|i}}/ pays (also /{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{IPA link|i}}/)
/{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|j}}/ mayonnaise, papaye, ayoye
finally ɛ}} Gamay, margay, railway e}} okay
-ayeɛ}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|i}}/ abbaye ɛ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ paye ɛ}} La Haye
/{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|j}}/ baye
e elsewhere ə}} repeser, genoux e}} revolver
{{IPAslink|i}} because
before two or more consonants
(including double consonants),
x (in all cases), or
a final consonant (silent or pronounced) 		{{IPAslink|ɛ}} est, estival, voyelle, examiner, exécuter, quel, chalet e}}
{{IPAslink|ə}}		essence, effet, henné
recherche, secrète, repli (before ch+vowel or 2 different consonants when the second one is l or r)		e}} mangez, (and any form of a verb in the second person plural that ends in -ez).
{{IPAslink|a}} femme, solennel, fréquemment, (and other adverbs ending in -emment)[8]
{{IPAslink|œ}} Gennevilliers
in monosyllabic words before a silent consonant e}} et, les, nez, clef ɛ}} es
finally
in a position where
it can be easily elided 		Ø e, unique, acheter (also {{IPAslink>ə}}), franchementə}} (finally in monosyllabic words) que, de, je
é, éee}} clé, échapper, idée ɛ}} (in closed syllables) événement, céderai, vénerie
èɛ}} relève, zèle
êɛ}} tête, crêpe, forêt, prêt e}} bêtise
eei}} week-end, spleen e}} pedigree
eauo}} eau, oiseaux
eiɛ}}eige, reine, geisha (also /{{IPA link>ɛ}}{{IPA link|j}}/)a}}{{IPA link|j}}/ leitmotiv (also /{{IPA link|ɛ}}/)
eîɛ}} reître
eoiw}}{{IPA link|a}}/ asseoir
euphonologically finally
before {{IPAslink>z}}		ø}} Europe, heureux, peu, chanteuse y}} eu, eussions, (and any conjugated form of avoir spelt with eu-), gageure (in new orthography, gageüre)
elsewhere œ}} beurre, jeune ø}} feutre, neutre, pleuvoir
eûø}} jeûne y}}, eûmes, eût, (and any conjugated forms of avoir spelt with eû-)
ey before vowel ɛ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ gouleyant, volleyer
finally ɛ}} hockey, trolley
i elsewhere i}} ici, proscrire Ø businessman
before vowel j}} fief, ionique, rien i}} (in compound words) antioxydant
îi}} gîte, épître
ï (initially or between vowels)j}} ïambe, aïeul, païen i}} ouïe
-iei}} régie, vie
o before {{IPAslink>z}}o}} pro, mot, chose, déposes ɔ}} sosie
elsewhere ɔ}} carotte, offre o}} cyclone, fosse, tome
ôo}} tôt, cône ɔ}} hôpital (also {{IPAslink|o}})
œœ}} œil e}}
{{IPAslink|ɛ}}		 œsophage, fœtus
œstrogène 		ø}} lœss
oeɔ}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|e}}/ coefficient w}}{{IPA link|a}}/ moelle, moellon
/{{IPA link|w}}{{IPA link|ɛ}}/ moelleux (also /{{IPA link|w}}{{IPA link|a}}/)
{{IPAslink|ø}} foehn
oêw}}{{IPA link|a}}/ poêle
oëɔ}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|ɛ}}/ Noël ɔ}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|e}}/ canoë, goëmon
/{{IPA link|w}}{{IPA link|ɛ}}/ foëne
œu phonologically finally ø}} nœud, œufs, bœufs, vœu
elsewhere œ}} sœur, cœur, œuf, bœuf
oi, oiew}}{{IPA link|a}}/ roi, oiseau, foie, quoiw}}{{IPA link|ɑ}}/ bois, noix, poids, trois ɔ}} oignon
/{{IPA link|ɔ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ séquoia
/{{IPA link|o}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|i}}/ autoimmuniser
oîw}}{{IPA link|a}}/ croîs, Benoît
oïɔ}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|i}}/ coït, astéroïde ɔ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ troïka
ooɔ}}{{IPA link|.}}{{IPA link|ɔ}}/ coopération, oocyte, zoologie u}} bazooka, cool, football ɔ}} alcool, Boskoop, rooibos
{{IPAslink|o}} spéculoos, mooré, zoo
{{IPAslink|w}} shampooing
ou, où elsewhere u}} ouvrir, sous, où o}}{{IPA link|.}}{{IPA link|y}}/ pseudouridimycine
before vowel or h+vowel w}}ouest, couiner, oui, souhait (also /{{IPA link>u}}/)
oûu}} coût, goût
-oueu}} roue
oyw}}{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|j}}/ moyen, royaume w}}{{IPA link|a}}/ Fourcroy ɔ}}{{IPA link|j}}/ goyave, cow-boy, ayoy
/{{IPA link|ɔ}}.{{IPA link|i}}/ Moyse
u elsewhere y}} tu, juge u}} tofu, pudding
{{IPAslink|i}} business
{{IPAslink|œ}} club, puzzle
before vowel ɥ}} huit, tuer y}} pollueur w}} cacahuète (also {{IPAslink|ɥ}})
ûy}} sûr, flûte
ue, üe elsewhere ɥ}}{{IPA link|ɛ}}/ actuel, ruelle œ}} (see below) orgueil, cueillir
finally y}} aigüe, rue Ø clique
uyɥ}}{{IPA link|i}}{{IPA link|j}}/ bruyant, ennuyé, fuyons, Guyenne y}}.{{IPA link|j}}/ gruyère, thuya ɥ}}{{IPA link|i}}/ puy
y elsewhere i}} cyclone, style a}}{{IPA link|j}}/ sky
before vowel j}} yeux, yole i}} polyester, Libye
ÿ (used only in proper nouns) i}} L'Haÿ-les-Roses, Freÿr

Combinations of vowel and consonant letters

Spelling Major value
(IPA) 		Examples of major value Minor values
(IPA) 		Examples of minor value Exceptions
am, an (before consonant or finally) ɑ̃}} ambiance, France a}}{{IPA link|m}}/ Viêt-Nam
/{{IPA link|a}}{{IPA link|n}}/ tennisman
{{IPAslink|a}} damné
aen (before consonant or finally) ɑ̃}} Caen
aim, ain (before consonant or finally) ɛ̃}} faim, saint, bains
aon (before consonant or finally) ɑ̃}} paon, faon a}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|ɔ̃}}/ pharaon
cqu k}} acquit, acquéreur
-cte (as the feminine adjective ending for words ending in a silent "ct" (see above)) t}} succincte
em, en (before consonant or finally elsewhere) ɑ̃}} embaucher, vent ɛ̃}} examen, ben, pensum ɛ}}{{IPA link|n}}/ week-end, lichen
/{{IPA link|ɛ}}{{IPA link|m}}/ indemne, totem
reason=Same as the category above; is the digraph ambiguous?|date=July 2018}} or finally after é, i, or y)ɛ̃}} européen, bien, doyen ɑ̃}} (before t or soft c) patient, quotient, science, audience
eim, ein (before consonant or finally) ɛ̃}} plein, sein, Reims
-ent (3rd person plural verb ending) Ø parlent, finissaient
anchorer}}e}} aller, transporter, premier ɛ}}{{IPA link|ʁ}}/ hiver, super, éther, fier
-es Ø Nantes, faites e}}, {{IPAslink|ɛ}}les, des, ces, es
eun (before consonant or finally) œ̃}} jeun
anchorew}}ewj}}{{IPA link|u}}/ewton, steward (also {{IPA link>i}}{{IPA link|w}})w}} chewing-gum
ge (before a, o, u) ʒ}} geai, mangea
gu (before e, i, y) ɡ}} guerre, dingue ɡ}}{{IPA link|y}}/, /{{IPA link|ɡ}}{{IPA link|ɥ}}/ argue, aiguille, linguistique, ambiguïté
1|1}}j}} ail, conseil
-il (not after vowel)i}}{{IPA link|l}}/ il, fil i}} outil, fils, fusil
1|1}}j}} paille, nouille
-ill- (not after vowel) i}}{{IPA link|j}}/ grillage, billei}}{{IPA link|l}}/ mille, million, billion, ville, villa, village, tranquille[9]
im, in, în (before consonant or finally) ɛ̃}} importer, vin, vînt i}}{{IPA link|n}}/ sprint
oin (before consonant or finally) w}}{{IPA link|ɛ̃}}/ besoin, point
om, on (before consonant or finally) ɔ̃}} ombre, bon ɔ}}{{IPA link|n}}/ canyon
{{IPAslink|ə}} monsieur
{{IPAslink|ɔ}} automne
anchorow}}owo}} cow-boy, show u}} clown
/{{IPA link|o}}{{IPAlink|.}}{{IPA link|w}}/ Koweït
anchorqu}}quk}} quand, pourquoi, loquace k}}{{IPA link|ɥ}}/
/{{IPA link|k}}{{IPA link|w}}/		 équilatéral
aquarium, loquace, quatuor 		k}}{{IPA link|y}}/ piqure, qu
anchorti}}ti + vowel (initially or after s or x)t}}{{IPA link|j}}/ bastion, gestionnaire, tiens, aquae-sextien
ti + vowel (elsewhere) s}}{{IPA link|j}}/, /{{IPA link|s}}{{IPA link|i}}/ fonctionnaire, initiation, Croatie, haïtien t}}{{IPA link|j}}/, /{{IPA link|t}}{{IPA link|i}}/ the suffix -tié, all conjugated forms of
verbs with a radical ending in -t
(augmentions, partiez, etc.) or derived from
tenir, and all nouns and past participles derived
from such verbs and ending in -ie (sortie, divertie, etc.)
um, un (before consonant or finally) œ̃}} parfum, brun ɔ}}{{IPA link|m}}/ album, maximumɔ̃}} punch, secundo
ym, yn (before consonant or finally) ɛ̃}} sympa, syndrome i}}{{IPA link|m}}/ gymnase, hymne

{{note|1|1}} These combinations are pronounced {{IPA|/j/}} after a, e, eu, œ, ou, and ue, all but the last of which are pronounced normally and are not influenced by the i. For example, in rail, the a is pronounced {{IPA|/a/}}; in mouiller, the ou is pronounced {{IPA|/u/}}. {{Anchor|anchorueil}}Ue, however, which only occurs in such combinations after c and g, is pronounced {{IPA|/œ/}} as opposed to /{{IPA|ɥ}}{{IPA|ɛ}}/: orgueil, cueillir, accueil, etc. These combinations are never pronounced {{IPA|/j/}} after o or u (except -uill-, which is /{{IPA|ɥ}}{{IPA|i}}{{IPA|j}}/: aiguille, juillet); in that case, the vowel + i combination as well as the l is pronounced normally, although as usual, the pronunciation of u after g and q is somewhat unpredictable: poil, huile, équilibre {{IPA|[ekilibʁ]}} but équilatéral {{IPA|[ekɥilateʁal]}}, etc.

Words from Greek

The spelling of French words of Greek origin is complicated by a number of digraphs which originated in the Latin transcriptions. The digraphs {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}}, and {{angbr|ch}} normally represent {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, and {{IPA|/k/}} in Greek loanwords, respectively; and the ligatures {{angbr|æ}} and {{angbr|œ}} in Greek loanwords represent the same vowel as {{angbr|é}} ({{IPAslink|e}}). Further, many words in the international scientific vocabulary were constructed in French from Greek roots and have kept their digraphs (e.g., stratosphère, photographie).

History

{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}

The Oaths of Strasbourg from 842 is the earliest text written in the early form of French called Romance or Gallo-Romance.

Roman

The Gaulish language of the inhabitants of Gaul disappeared progressively over the course of the Roman conquest as the Latin languages began to replace them: written (Classical) Latin and spoken (vulgar) Latin. Classical Latin, taught in schools, remained the language of religious services, of scientific works, of legislative acts and of certain literary works. Vulgar Latin, spoken by the Roman soldiers and merchants, and adopted by the natives, evolved slowly, taking the forms of different spoken Roman vernaculars according to the region of the country. These vernaculars divided into two branches in the Gallo-Romance language family, the langues d'oïl north of the Loire and the langues d'oc in the south.[10]

Old French

In the 9th century, the Romance vernaculars were already quite far from Latin. For example, to understand the Bible, written in Latin, footnotes were necessary. With consolidation of royal power, beginning in the 13th century, the Francien vernacular, in usage then on the Île-de-France, brought it little by little to the other languages and evolved toward Classic French.

The languages found in the manuscripts dating from the 9th century to the 13th century form what is known as Old French or ancien français. These languages continued to evolve until, in the 14th century to the 16th century, Middle French (moyen français) emerged.[10]

Middle French

During the Middle French period (c. 1300–1600), modern spelling practices were largely established. This happened especially during the 16th century, under the influence of printers. The overall trend was towards continuity with Old French spelling, although some changes were made under the influence of changed pronunciation habits; for example, the Old French distinction between the diphthongs eu and ue was eliminated in favor of consistent eu,{{efn|Except in a few words such as accueil, where the ue spelling was necessary to retain the hard /k/ pronunciation of the c.}} as both diphthongs had come to be pronounced {{IPA|/ø/}} or {{IPA|/œ/}} (depending on the surrounding sounds). However, many other distinctions that had become equally superfluous were maintained, e.g. between s and soft c or between ai and ei. It is likely that etymology was the guiding factor here: the distinctions s/c and ai/ei reflect corresponding distinctions in the spelling of the underlying Latin words, whereas no such distinction exists in the case of eu/ue.

This period also saw the development of some explicitly etymological spellings, e.g. temps ("time"), vingt ("twenty") and poids ("weight") (note that in many cases, the etymologizing was sloppy or occasionally completely incorrect; vingt reflects Latin viginti, with the g in the wrong place, and poids actually reflects Latin pensum, with no d at all; the spelling poids is due to an incorrect derivation from Latin pondus). The trend towards etymologizing sometimes produced absurd (and generally rejected) spellings such as sçapvoir for normal savoir ("to know"), which attempted to combine Latin sapere ("to be wise", the correct origin of savoir) with scire ("to know").

Classical French

{{Main|Reforms of French orthography}}

Modern French spelling was codified in the late 17th century by the Académie française, based largely on previously established spelling conventions. Some reforms have occurred since then, but most have been fairly minor. The most significant changes have been:

  • Adoption of j and v to represent consonants, in place of former i and u.
  • Addition of a circumflex accent to reflect historical vowel length. During the Middle French period, a distinction developed between long and short vowels, with long vowels largely stemming from a lost /s/ before a consonant, as in même (cf. Spanish mismo), but sometimes from the coalescence of similar vowels, as in âge from earlier aage, eage (early Old French edage < Vulgar Latin aetaticum, cf. Spanish edad < aetate(m)). Prior to this, such words continued to be spelled historically (e.g. mesme and age). Ironically, by the time this convention was adopted in the 19th century, the former distinction between short and long vowels had largely disappeared in all but the most conservative pronunciations, with vowels automatically pronounced long or short depending on the phonological context (see French phonology).
  • Use of ai in place of oi where pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} rather than {{IPA|/wa/}}. The most significant effect of this was to change the spelling of all imperfect verbs (formerly spelled -ois, -oit, -oient rather than -ais, -ait, -aient), as well as the name of the language, from françois to français.

Modern French

{{Main|Reforms of French orthography#The rectifications of 1990}}

In October 1989, Michel Rocard, then-Prime Minister of France, established the High Council of the French Language ({{lang|fr|Conseil supérieur de la langue française}}) in Paris. He designated experts — among them linguists, representatives of the Académie française and lexicographers — to propose standardizing several points, a few of those points being:

  • The uniting hyphen in all compound numerals

i.e. trente-et-un

  • The plural of compound words, the second element of which always takes the plural s

For example un après-midi, des après-midis

  • The circumflex accent {{angbr|ˆ}} disappears on all u's and i's except for words in which it is needed for differentiation

As in coût (cost) → cout, abîme (abyss) → abime but sûr (sure) because of sur (on)

  • The past participle of laisser followed by an infinitive verb is invariable (now works the same way as the verb faire)

elle s'est laissée mourir → elle s'est laissé mourir

Quickly, the experts set to work. Their conclusions were submitted to Belgian and Québécois linguistic political organizations. They were likewise submitted to the Académie française, which endorsed them unanimously, saying:

"Current orthography remains that of usage, and the 'recommendations' of the High Council of the French language only enter into play with words that may be written in a different manner without being considered as incorrect or as faults."{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

The changes were published in the Journal officiel de la République française in December 1990. At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions. In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct.[11]

Punctuation

{{see also|Punctuation#Other languages}}

In France, the exclamation mark, question mark, semicolon, colon, percentage mark, currency symbols, hash, and guillemet all require a non-breaking space before and after the punctuation mark. Outside of France, this rule is often ignored. Computer software may aid or hinder the application of this rule, depending on the degree of localisation, as it is marked differently from most other Western punctuation.

See also

  • Elision (French)
  • French phonology
  • French braille
  • French manual alphabet
  • Circumflex in French

Notes

{{Notelist}}

References

1. ^Académie française, accentuation {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514131914/http://www.academie-francaise.fr/langue/questions.html |date=2011-05-14 }}
2. ^{{cite web|url=http://66.46.185.79/bdl/gabarit_bdl.asp?t1=1&id=1438|title=Banque de dépannage linguistique - Accents sur les majuscules|website=66.46.185.79|accessdate=10 October 2017}}
3. ^See fr:Catégorie:oe non ligaturé en français
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://monsu.desiderio.free.fr/curiosites/ligat-ae.html|title=La ligature æ|first=Dominique|last=Didier|website=Monsu.desiderio.free.fr|accessdate=10 October 2017}}
5. ^fr:Catégorie:ae non ligaturé en français
6. ^See Ch (digraph)#French
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.languageguide.org/french/grammar/pronunciation/index.html|title=French Pronuncation: Vowel Sounds I -LanguageGuide|website=Languageguide.org|accessdate=10 October 2017}}
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.languageguide.org/french/grammar/pronunciation/vowels2.html|title=French Pronuncation: Vowel Sounds II -LanguageGuide|website=Languageguide.org|accessdate=10 October 2017}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://french.about.com/od/pronunciation/a/ll.htm|title=Is LL Pronounced Like an L or like a Y in French?|website=French.about.com|accessdate=10 October 2017}}
10. ^1 Translation of Évolution de la langue française du Ve au XVe siècle. See also Langue romane (French) and Romance languages (English).
11. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35496893|title=End of the circumflex? Changes in French spelling cause uproar|date=2016-02-05|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-07-30|language=en-GB}}

Bibliography

  • {{cite book

|title=Traité de prononciation française
|first=Pierre
|last=Fouché
|location=Paris
|publisher=Klincksieck
|year=1956}}
  • {{cite book

|title=The Sounds of French: An Introduction
|isbn=0-521-31510-7
|first=Bernard
|last=Tranel
|location=Cambridge, New York
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=1987}}

External links

  • Alternate French spelling {{fr icon}}
  • Recording of 3 different voices pronouncing the French alphabet
  • [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p4IMlvPjJyM French alphabet pronounced by a native speaker (Youtube)]
{{Language orthographies}}{{DEFAULTSORT:French Orthography}}

2 : French language|Latin-script orthographies
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