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It was after the dissolution of the kingdom of Cheras of Cranganore (Kodungallur) in the early 12th century, the Samoothiris – originally autonomous chiefs of Eranadu – demonstrated their political independence. The Samoothiris maintained elaborate trade relations with the Muslim Middle-Eastern sailors in the Indian Ocean, the primary spice traders on the Malabar Coast in the Middle Ages. Kozhikode was then an important entrepôt in south-western India where Chinese and West Asian trade met.^[1]

The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama visited the Kozhikode in 1498, opening the sailing route directly from Europe to Asia.^[5] The Portuguese efforts to lay the foundations to Estado da Índia, and to take complete control over the commerce was repeatedly hampered by the forces of Samoothiri of Kozhikode. The Kunjali Marakkars, the famous Muslim warriors, were the naval chiefs of Kozhikode. By the end of the 16th century the Portuguese – now commanding the spice traffic on the Malabar Coast – had succeeded in replacing the Muslim merchants in the Arabian Sea. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in the 17th century, only to be followed by the English.^[6]

In 1766 Haider Ali of Mysore defeated the Samoothiri of Kozhikode – an English East India Company dependant at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode to his state.^[4]^[7] After the Third Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the Company. Later the status of the Samoothiri as independent rulers was changed to that of pensioners of the Company (1806).^[4]^[8]

Etymology

The title "Samoothiri" regularly appears in sources only after the c. 15th century, first time in the writings Ibn Batutah (visited Kozhikode in the 14th century (1342–1347)). It is safe to assume that the Eradis of Nediyirippu assumed the title of "Samoothiri" in a later period.

The Samoothiris used the title "Punthurakon" (Victor/Lord of Punthura?) in inscriptions (c. early 12 century), in palace records known as the Granthavaris, and in official treaties with the English and the Dutch. No records indicate the actual personal name of the ruler.^[4] Punthura may be the place of their origin, or a battle-field, or a port of great fame. The title "Kunnalakkon" ("Lord of Hills and Waves") and its Sanskrit form "Shailabdhishvara" are mostly found in later literary works (such as Manipravalam and Sanskrit poems).^[9]

Seats of power

Thrikkavil Kovilakam in Ponnani served as a second home for the Samoothiris of Kozhikode.^[4]^[10] Other secondary seats of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode, all established at much later time, were Trichur (Thrissur) and Cranganore (Kodungallur).^[4]

The chief Kerala ports under control of the Samoothiris in the late 15th century were Panthalayini Kollam, and Kozhikode. The Samoothiri of Kozhikode derived greater part of his revenues by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Smaller ports in the kingdom were Puthuppattanam (Kottakkal), Parappanangadi, Tanur (Tanore), Ponnani (Ponani), Chetuva (Chetwai) and Kodungallur (Cranganore). The port of Beypore served as a ship building center.^[4]^[10]

Kozhikode

Panthalayini Kollam

Caste and line of succession

According to K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Kozhikode, the members of the royal house of Samoothiri belonged the Samanta community.^[4] The Samantas claimed a status higher than the rest of the Nairs.^[4] The Hindu theological formula that the rulers must be of Kshatriya varna may have been a complication for the Nair Samantas of the Kodungallur Chera monarch. So the Samantas – already crystallized as a distinctive social group, something of a "sub-caste" – began to style themselves as "Samanta Ksatriyas".^[8] The Samantas have birth, marriage and death customs identical to the Nair community.^[9]

In the royal family, thalis of the princesses were usually tied by Kshatriyas from Kodungallur chief's family, which the Samoothiri recognised as more ancient and therefore higher rank. The majority of the women's sambandham partners were Nambudiri Brahmins.^[4]^[18]

The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in premodern Kerala was known as the swaroopam. The rulers of Kozhikode belonged to "Nediyirippu swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance. The eldest male member of Nediyirippu swaroopam became the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. There was a set pattern of succession, indicated by sthanams in the royal line. Five sthanams were defined in Kozhikode. These positions were based on the chronological seniority of the incumbent in the different thavazhis of the swaroopam and constituted what is called in the records as "kuruvazhcha". Unlike in the case of Cochin (Kochi), there was no rotation of position among the thavazhis. Thus no particular thavazhi enjoyed any privilege or precedence in the matter of succession, as the only criterion for succession was seniority of age.^[8]

Five sthanams existed in Kozhikode, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior members of the three kovilakams of the family.^[4]

The senior female member of the whole Samoothiri family, the Valiya Thamburatti, also enjoyed a sthanam with separate property known as the Ambadi Kovilakam.^[4] Women were not allowed to be the ruler of Kozhikode, and the oldest male member traced the female becomes the next Samoothiri .^[4]

History

Brahmnic legends such as the Keralolpathi (compiled in its final form c. 17th - 18 century) and the Calicut Granthavari recount the events leading to establishment of the state of Kozhikode.^[4]

Durate Barbosa, in the early 16th century, mentions the Cheraman sword among the three swords and other royal emblems of the Samoothiri usually taken out in ceremonial processions. The sword was worshipped by the Samoothiris in their private temple everyday and especially at the time of the coronation. The Cheraman sword was burnt in a surprise attack by the Dutch at Kodungallur (1670) while the Samoothiri was residing with Velutha Nambiyar. A new sword was made in 1672 out of the fragments of the old. The broken parts of the 1672 sword, kept in a fully sealed copper sheath, are still worshipped daily in the Bhagavathi temple attached to the palace of the Samoothiris at Thiruvachira.^[9]

Rulers of Eranadu

Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode are obscure. However, it is generally agreed among historians the Eradis were originally the autonomous rulers of Eralnadu/Eranadu region of the Kodungallur Chera kingdom.^[4]^[1]^[9] The Kodungallur Chera kingdom was a congeries of chiefdoms, which were ruled by local chiefs. The office of the chief/senior prince of Eranadu (Eralanadu Utaya) is assumed to be the hereditary.^[4]^[1] The earliest reference to the chief and chiefdom of Eranadu is the Cochin Jewish copper plate (c. 1000 AD). Old Malayalam inscriptions name two titles for the rulers of Eranadu - Manvepala Manaviyata ( c. 11 century) and Manavikrama (c. 12th century). In the later period, Manavikrama, Manaveda and Viraraya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Samoothiri always being known as Manavikrama. Historians assume that Manaveda might be a corruption of the old Malayalam title "Manaviyata".^[9] Scholars tentatively identify Manaviyata and Manavikrama with the titles of the elder and younger brothers of the famous origin legend.^[9]

The strength of the "Hundred Organisation" of the senior prince of Eranadu was "Six Hundred". Hundred organisations with same capacity are also found in Ramavalanadu, Valluvanadu, Kizhmalanadu, and Venadu. Scholars comes across only one nadu with a stronger force, namely Kurumpuranadu, with a force of Seven Hundred although many lesser ones with Five Hundred of Purakizhanadu, Three Hundred of Nantuzhanadu, etc., are available.^[4]^[1]

The following table shows available inscriptions mentioning the rulers of Eranadu.

Although there is no solid basis for the famous partition legend (the Cheraman Perumal tradition) surrounding the end of Kodungallur Cheras, it is a possibility that following the mysterious disappearance of the ruler, the land was "partitioned" and that the governors of different nadus asserted independence, proclaiming it as their gift from the last overlord.^[4]^[1]

There is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led to the establishment of Eradi's rule over Kozhikode, their later seat. Some historians are of the view that the Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Kodungallur Chera king as he was at the forefront of the battles with the Chola–Pandya forces in south Kerala. The Eradi seems to have led the Chera army to victory. The king therefore granted him, as a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast [Kozhikode] in addition to his hereditary possessions [Eralanadu province]. The Eradis subsequently moved their seat to the coastal "marshy lands" and established the city of Kozhikode.^[9]

To corroborate his assertion that Eradi prince was a member of the inner circle of the last Chera king Rama Kulasekhara (c. 1089 - 1122), scholars cites an old Malayalam inscription (AD 1102) found on a granite pillar set up in the courtyard of the Ramashwaram temple, Kollam. According to the inscription, the king, residing at Panainkavu Palace at Kurakkeni Kollam, sitting in council with Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers, the Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venadu, Punthurakkon Manavikrama - the chief of Eranadu, and other feudatories, made prayaschittam for (some) offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for daily feeding the Brahmins and leasing out a Cherikkal for that purpose to Venadu chief Kumaran Udaya Varma.^[25]^[26]^[9]

Expansions to central Kerala

The power balance in Kerala changed as Eralnadu rulers developed the port at Kozhikode. The Samoothiri became one of the most powerful chiefs in Kerala.^[4] In some of his military campaigns – such as that into Valluvanadu – the ruler received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors.^[8] It seems that the Muslim judge of Kozhikode offered all help in "money and material" to the Samoothiri to strike at Thirunavaya.^[4]

Smaller chiefdoms south of Kozhikode – Beypore, Chaliyam, Parappanadu and Tanur (Vettam) – soon had to submit and became their feudatories one by one. The rulers of Payyormala, Kurumbranadu, and other Nair chiefs on the suburbs of Kozhikode also acknowledged the supremacy of Kozhikode. There were battles between Kozhikode and Kurumbranadu for a coastal region called Payyanadu. Payyanadu was a part of Kurumbranadu in early times, and was eventually given as a "royal gift" to Kozhikode. Kozhikode easily overran the Kurumbranadu warriors in the battle and Kurumbranadu had to sue for peace by surrendering Valisseri.^[4]

The ruler of Kozhikode next turned his attention to the valley of Perar. Large parts of the valley was then ruled by Valluvakkonathiri, the ancient hereditary chief of Valluvanadu. The principal objective of Kozhikode was the capture the sacred settlement of Thirunavaya. Soon the Samoothiris found themselves intervened in the so-called kurmatsaram between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur. In the most recent event, the Nambudiris from Thirumanasseri Nadu had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu came to help the Chovvaram and raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri appealed to the ruler of Kozhikode for help, and promised to cede the port of Ponnani to Kozhikode as the price for his protection. Kozhikode, looking for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer.^[4]

Assisted by the warriors of their subordinate chiefs (Chaliyam, Beypore, Tanur and Kodungallur) and the Muslim naval fleet under the Koya of Kozhikode, the Samoothiri's fighters advanced by both land and sea.^[4] The main force under the command of Samoothiri himself attacked, encamping at Thripangodu, an allied force of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu from the north. Meanwhile, another force under the Eralppadu commanded a fleet across the sea and landed at Ponnani and later moved to Thirumanasseri, with intention to descend on Thirunavaya from the south with help of the warriors of the Thirumanasseri Brahmins. Eralppadu also prevented the warriors of Perumpadappu joining Valluvanadu forces. The Muslim merchants and commanders at Ponnani supported the Kozhikode force with food, transport and provisions. The warriors of the Eralppadu moved north and crossed the River Perar and took up position on the northern side of the river.^[4] The Koya marched at the head of a large column, and stormed Thirunavaya. In spite of the fact that the warriors of Valluvanadu did not get the timely help of Perumpadappu, they fought vigorously and the battle dragged on. In the meantime, the Kozhikode minister Mangattachan was also successful in turning Kadannamanna Elavakayil Vellodi (junior branch of Kadannamanna) to their side. Finally, two Valluvanadu princes were killed in the battles, the Nairs abandoned the settlement and Kozhikode infested Thirunavaya.^[4]

The capture of Thirunavaya was not the end of Kozhikode's expansion into Valluvanadu. The Samoothiri continued surges over on Valluvanadu. Malappuram, Nilambur, Vallappanattukara and Manjeri were easily occupied. He encountered stiff resistance in some places and the fights went on in a protracted and sporadic fashion for a long time. Further assaults in the east against Valluvanadu were neither prolonged nor difficult for Kozhikode.^[4]

The battles along the western borders of Valluvanadu were bitter, for they were marked by treachery and crime. Panthalur and Ten Kalams came under Kozhikode only after a protracted struggle. The assassination of a minister of Kozhikode by the chief minister of Valluvanadu while visiting Venkatakkotta in Valluvanadu sparked the battle, which dragged on for almost a decade. At last the Valluvanadu minister was captured by Samoothiri's warriors and executed at Padapparambu, and his province (Ten Kalams, including Kottakkal and Panthalur) were occupied by the Samoothiri. The Kizhakke Kovilakam Munalappadu, who took a leading part in this campaign, received half of the newly captured province from Samoothiri as a gift. The loss of this fiercely loyal chief minister was the greatest blow to Valluvanadu after the loss of Tirunavaya and Ponnani.^[4]

Expansions to Kochi

Kozhikode faced defeat in their next assault on Perumpadappu swaroopam. The combined forces of Perumpadappu and Valluvanadu resisted Kozhikode warriors and a vicious battle ensued for three days, at the end of which Kozhikode forces was on the retreat.^[4]

After a period of uneasy calm in Kerala, Kozhikode occupied Nedunganadu, a small polity between Valluvanadu and Palakkad (Palghat). Nedunganadu was overran without striking even a single blow. The chief of Nedunganadu surrendered to the Kozhikode forces at a place called Kodikkuni. Then the Kozhikode warriors captured a number of smaller villages around Thirunavaya – such as Thiruvegappuram – from Valluvanadu. The Valluvanadu governor tried to overcome the Kozhikode prince's advance at Kolakkadu. Near Karimpuzha in Valluvanadu, the untouchables – the Cherumas and Panans of Kotta – resisted the advancing Kozhikode forces. The Kozhikode won their affection by gifts and presents. Kozhikode prince was met by an ancestor of Kavalappara Nair, a vassal of Valluvanadu, at Karakkadu. The chiefs under Palakkad surrendered to Kozhikode at Vengotri, Nellayi and Kakkathodu. Samoothiri of Kozhikode appointed the Eralppadu as the ruler of southern Malabar region during this time. The provincial seat was at Karimpuzha. Talappilli (present day taluk of the same name and coastal regions from Ponnani to Chetwai) and Chengazhinadu submitted to Kozhikode without any resistance.^[4]

Kozhikode subjugated large parts of the state of Kochi in the subsequent years. The family feud between the elder and younger branches of the ruling family of Kochi was exploited by the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. The intervention was initiated as Kozhikode’s help was sought against the ruling younger branch. The rulers of Kodungallur, Idappalli, Airur, Sarkkara, Patinjattedam [Thrissur] and Chittur supported or joined Kozhikode forces in this occupation of Kochi . Some of these were the vassals of Kochi. The Kochi chief was defeated in a battle at Thrissur and his palace was occupied. But, the defeated chief escaped to further south. Pursuing the chief to south, the Kozhikode forces under Samoothiri penetrated and occupied the town of Kochi. Unable to withstand the attacks, Kochi finally accepted Kozhikode's rule. The prince from the elder branch was installed on the throne of Kochi as vassal.^[4]

The battles against Kochi were followed by a battle against Palakkad and the expansion to Naduvattom by a Kozhikode prince. Kollengode of Venganadu Nambitis was also put under the sway of Kozhikode during the time. The severe and frequent battles with Valluvanadu by Kozhikode continued. But even after the loss of his superior ally Kochi, Valluvanadu did not submit to Kozhikode. The ruler of Kozhikode followed a custom of settling Muslim families and the families of other Hindu generals who had allegiance to him, in the captured areas of Valluvanadu. Kozhikode occupied Valluvanadu (now shrunk to Attappadi valley, parts of Mannarkkad, Ottappalam and Perinthalmanna) but could not make much progress into its hinterland.^[4]

Kozhikode was also successful in bringing the polity of Kolathunadu (Cannanore) under their control. During his expansions, the Samoothiri occupied Pantalayini Kollam as a preliminary advance to Kolathunadu. Kolathiri immediately sent ambassadors to submit to whatever terms Kozhikode might dictate. Kolathunadu transferred the regions already occupied to Kozhikode and certain Hindu temple rights. The stories about the origin of the Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara) are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the Samoothiri swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in Kolathunadu (Cannanore) – one of the Samoothiri's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolathu prince with this princess the Kadathanadu ruling family was born. The name Kadathanadu refers to as the passing way between Kolathunadu and Kozhikode.^[28]

Vijayanagara conquests

Deva Raya II (1424–1446 AD), king of the Vijayanagara Empire, conquered the whole of present-day Kerala state in the 15th century. He defeated (1443) rulers of Venadu (Kollam, Quilon), as well as Kozhikode. Fernão Nunes says that the Samoothiri and even the kings of Burma ruling at Pegu and Tenasserim paid tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venadu seems to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.

As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, Samoothiri of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. Samoothiri built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.^[4]

An embassy from the Samoothiri of Kozhikode, in which the chief envoy was a Persian-speaking Muslim, came to the Timurid court of Mirza Shahrukh at Herat in the 15th century. Some Herat officials had, some years earlier, on their return journey from the Sultanate of Bengal, been stranded at port Kozhikode, and on this occasion had been received by the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. Impressed by the description of the Timurid influence, the Samoothiri decided to send his own embassy to Herat.^[107]

Abdur Razzaq, an employ of Shahrukh, was soon engaged on a mission to Kozhikode (November 1442 – April 1443). He carried a series of presents from Herat, including a horse, a pelisse, headgear and ceremonial robes. "As for duties [at Kozhikode], at one-fortieth, and that too, only on sales, they are even lower that at Hormuz [in the Persian Gulf]", says Abdur Razzaq.^[107]

While in Kozhikode, Razzaq was invited by the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II to his court. The envoy arrived from the Vijayanagara king had "asked" the Samoothiri to send the Herat envoy on to his court. He also says the king of Vijayanagara does not possess "jurisdiction" over the kingdom of Kozhikode, but the Samoothiri was apparently "still in great awe of the Vijayanagar king".^[30]

Relations with Yuan and Ming China

"Though the journey from this country [Kingdom of Kozhikode] to the Middle Kingdom is more than a hundred thousand li, yet people are very similar, happy, and prosperous, with identical customs."|source= Account of the members of Zheng He's entourage^[110] |align=left |salign=left |width=39%}}

It is known that the Tang Chinese ships frequently visited the then major Kerala ports such as Kollam for spices (in the 9th-10th centuries). According historians, the "Nanpiraj" mentioned in the Ling daida can be identified with Kozhikode.^[12]

From the 13th century, Kozhikode developed into the major trading centre where the Middle-Eastern and Chinese sailors met to exchange their products. Marco Polo who visited Kozhikode in 1293–

1294 records that the trade in Kerala was dominated by the Chinese. Ibn Batutah refers to the brisk Chinese trade at Kozhikode. Wang Ta-yuan – during the Yuan period – describes the pepper trade in Kozhikode in his work "Tao-i-Chih".^[12]^[113]^[31]

A major objective of the first Ming expedition (1405–1407) was the kingdom of Kozhikode. Historians presume that the fleet stayed from December 1406 to April 1407 at Kozhikode. Ambassadors from Kozhikode, among envoys from other states, accompanied the returning (first expedition) fleet bringing articles of "tribute" to Nanking in 1407. On the second expedition, in 1408–09, Zheng He again visited Kozhikode—stopping as well in "Chochin" (Kochi). The envoys in the second expedition (1408–1409) carried out the formal "investiture" of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode "Mana Piehchialaman". A memorial inscription was erected in Kozhikode to commemorate the investiture. The Chinese titles and gifts (brocades and gauzes) were given to the Samoothiri and his retinue by the Chinese envoys. Presumably a stay of about four months was made at Kozhikode, possibly from December 1408 to April 1409. The third expedition (1409–1411) - the first one to sail to beyond India - also visited Kozhikode. The fleet sailed on from Kozhikode to Sri Lanka in 1411. The fourth (1413–1415), fifth (1417–1419), sixth (1421–22) and seventh (1431–33) fleets also visited Kozhikode.^[33]^[2] A number of tribute delegations – in 1421, 1423, and 1433, among others – were dispatched by the Kozhikode rulers to Nanking and Peking. Presents from Kozhikode included horses and black pepper.^[12] Brocades of several types were presented to the some of the Kozhikode envoys.^[34] Ma Huan visited Kozhikode several times, and describes the trade in the region. Fei-Hsin also notices the brisk trade at Kozhikode.^[12]^[35]^[36]^[37]^[38]

The few remnants of the Chinese trade can be seen in and around the present city of Kozhikode. This include a Silk Street, Chinese Fort ("Chinakotta"), Chinese Settlement ("Chinachery" in Kappad), and Chinese Mosque ("Chinapalli" in Panthalayini Kollam).^[12]^[35]^[39]

Relations with the Portuguese

The landing of Vasco da Gama in Kozhikode in 1498 has often been considered as the beginning of a new phase in Asian history during which the control of the Indian Ocean spice trade passed into the hands of the Europeans from Middle Eastern Muslims. The strong colony of foreign merchants settled in Kozhikode was hostile, but Samoothiri welcomed the Portuguese and allowed them to take spices on board. In Portugal, the goods brought by da Gama from India were computed at "sixty times the cost of the entire Asia expedition".^[42]

The Portuguese initially entered into hostile conflicts with the Samoothiri of Kozhikode and the Middle Eastern (Paradesi) merchants in Kozhikode. Within the next few decades, the Estado da Índia also found themselves fighting with several leading Mappila trading families of Kerala (esp. the Kannur Mappilas, lead by Mammali and the Marakkars of the Pearl Fishery Coast). Kingdom of Kozhikode, whose shipping was increasingly looted by the Portuguese, evolved into a centre of resistance.^[43] The Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports and continued their raids on departing native fleets.^[44] Mappila and Marakkar traders actively worked in the kingdoms of Malabar Coast and Ceylon to oppose the Portuguese.^[45] Naval battles broke out across Konkan, Malabar Coast, southern Tamil Nadu, and western Sri Lanka. Marakkars transformed as the admirals of Kozhikode and organised an effective collection of vessels to fight the Portuguese.^[46]

Relations with the Dutch and English

In 1602, the Samoothiri sent messages to Aceh, where the Verenigde Zeeuwsche Compagnie had a factory, promising the Dutch a fort at Kozhikode if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of Tanur, and handed over to the Portuguese. These men were later hanged in Goa.^[45]

A Dutch fleet under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived in Kozhikode in November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Kozhikode on 11 November 1604. By this time the kingdom and the port of Kozhikode was much reduced in importance.^[45] The treaty provided for a mutual alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was given facilities for trade at Kozhikode and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.

In 1610, Cornelis Jacobsz van Breekvelt and Hans Bullardm arrived at Kozhikode and re-promulgated the old treaty. In 1617, Pieter van den Broecke was asked by a Samoothiri prince to aid them in a battle against Kochi. The Dutch refused to help the Kozhikode rulers.^[45]

The Dutch, some fifteen years after the Samoothiri first asked for help, had promised much and delivered almost nothing. The Samoothiri finally turned to the English.^[45] In September 1610, the English factors at Mocha were approached by the head of the Mappilas there to their shipping in the region from the Portuguese fleets.^[45] The English reached Kozhikode under Captain William Keeling and concluded a treaty of trade (1616) under which, among others, the English were to assist Kozhikode in expelling the Portuguese from Fort Kochi and Fort Cranganore. The English set up a factory at Kozhikode, and a factor, George Woolman, is sent there with a stock of presents. But the Samoothiri soon found the English as unreliable as the Dutch where military aid was concerned. The factory was wound up in March, 1617.^[28]^[45]

Later in 1661, Kozhikode joined a coalition led by the Dutch to defeat the Portuguese and Kochi and conducted a number of successful campaigns. As a result of the Kew Letters, the Dutch settlements on the Malabar Coast were surrendered to the British in 1795 in order to prevent them being overrun by the French. Dutch Malabar remained with the British after the conclusion of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, which traded the colony with Bangka Island.

Mysore occupation and settlement negotiations

It was in 1732, at the invitation of the chief of Palakkad, that Mysore forces marched to Kerala for the first time. They appeared again in 1735, and in 1737 they raided the Samoothiri's frontier outposts. In 1745, the Mysore forces fought three battles with the Kozhikode warriors.^[4]^[8] In 1756 they invaded Kozhikode for the fifth time. The chief of Palakkad had placed himself under the protection of the King of Mysore, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of 12,000 fanams. The Faujdar of Dindigul, Hyder Ali, sent Mukhdam Sahib, with 2000 cavalry, 5,000 infantry, and 5 guns to Kerala. The Samoothiri tried to buy off the enemy by promising (Treaty, 1756) to refrain from molesting Palakkad and pay 12 lakh rupees for the expenses of the expedition. However the Samoothiri was unable pay anything to Hyder Ali.^[4]

In 1766, 12,000 Mysore forces under Hyder Ali marched to Malabar from Mangalore. Mysore's intentions were made easy by the help they received from the Muslims in Malabar. Ali Raja of Kannur, a Muslim ruler in northern Kerala, also helped the invading forces. The Mysore army conquered northern Kerala up to Kochi with relative ease. Hyder Ali inflicted a major setback on the Kozhikode warriors at Perinkolam Ferry on the Kotta River.^[4] As Mysore edged closer to the outer reaches of the city of Kozhikode, the Samoothiri sent most of his relatives to safe haven in Ponnani, and from there to Travancore, and to avoid the humiliation of surrender committed self-immolation by setting fire to his palace at Mananchira (27 April). Hyder Ali absorbed Malabar district to his state.^[57]^[8]

But as soon as the Haider Ali marched to Coimbatore, Nair rebellions broke out in Malabar. Some members of the Samoothiri family rebelled against the Muslim occupiers. This included the Eralpadu Krishna Varma with his nephew Ravi Varma. The princes were aided by the British East India Company.^[58] In 1768 the Samoothiri prince was restored in Kozhikode, agreeing to pay an annual tribute to Mysore. For nearly six years till 1774 nothing was heard about Hyder Ali.^[4] In 1774, Mysore forces under Srinivasa Rao occupied the city of Kozhikode. The prince retired to Travancore in a native vessel. The baton of resistance now passed to his nephew Ravi Varma. Ravi Varma helped the Company occupy Kozhikode in 1782.^[4] By the Treaty of Mangalore, concluded in 1784, Malabar was restored to Mysore. In 1785 the oppression of revenue officers led to a rebellion by the Mappilas of Manjeri. As a reward for aiding to put down the rebels, and partly as an incentive, Tipu Sultan settled upon Ravi Varma a pension and a jaghir in 1786. The peace was soon broken and Tipu sent 6,000 troops under Mon. Lally to Kerala.^[4]

Lord Cornwallis invited the Kerala chiefs to join him in 1790, promising to render them in future entirely independent of Mysore and to retain them upon reasonable terms under the protection of the Company. Prince Ravi Varma met General Meadows at Trichinopoly and settled with him the terms of the Kozhikode's cooperation. After the Third Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the Company by the Treaty of Seringapatam.^[8]

In the settlement negotiations with the Joint Commission in 1792, the Samoothiri proved recalcitrant. To pressure him, a portion of his former territories (Payyanadu, Payyormala, Kizhakkumpuram, Vadakkampuram and Pulavayi) was leased to the ruler of Kurumburanadu as manager for the East India Company. Finally, after prolonged negotiations, the hereditary territory of the Samoothiri, together with the coin mint and the sea customs, was leased back to him. He was also temporarily given jurisdiction over the petty rulers and, as a mark of the Samoothiri's exceptional position in Malabar, the revenue fixed for Beypore, Parappanadu and Vettattunadu was to be paid through him. As previously noted, these tax-payment and jurisdictional arrangements were terminated later and the Samoothiri of Kozhikode became a mere pensioned landlord receiving the "malikhana". On 1 July 1800, Malabar was transferred to the Madras Presidency. On 15 November 1806 the agreement upon which rested the future political relations between the Samoothiri of Kozhikode and the English was executed.^[4]^[8]

Governance

According to historian M. G. Raghava Varier, at the peak of their reign, the Samoothiri's ruled over a region from Kollam to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy).^[3]^[45]^[8] The hereditary local chiefs, more or less independent in their region, acknowledged the over-lordship of the Samoothiri in Kozhikode. The local magnates - conferred with privileges and titles by the Samoothiri - were more dependent on Kozhikode. In times of battles the chiefs and magnates provided the warriors to the Samoothiri and were protected in turn when an enemy made encroachment to their dominions.^[8]

Some of the local chiefs had the investiture ceremony, rather similar to that of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode, some claimed kshatriya status, and some of them even used the title "Raja".^[8] Vettam Udaya Mootha Kovil, Thirumanassheri Namboothiri, Thalappalli Punnathoor Nambadi, Thalappalli Kakkattu Nambadi, Vannilassheri Padinjare Nambadi, Parappur Karippuva Kovil, Chittoor Namboothirippadu, Manakkulathil Mooppil, Parappur Valavil Kovil, Parappur Kayyavil Kovil, Venginnadu Nambadi, Kurumburanadu Madampu Unithiri were some of the local chiefs of the kingdom of Kozhikode.^[8]

The kingdom only included the following territories during the late 18th century:^[4]

The Samoothiri was assisted in the work of government in Kozhikode by four hereditary chief ministers called "Sarvadhi Karyakkar" and number of ministers called "Karyakkar" and "Polttis". The Karyakkar were appointed and removed by the Samoothiri. Adhikaris, Thalachennavars, Achanmar and temple functionaries also belonged to the Polttis.^[4] There were ritual specialists like Hindu priests of the palaces, astrologers etc. as well as various occupational groups like physicians, weavers, and militiamen all of whom were attached to the royal establishment.^[4]

Sarvadhi Karyakkar

Shahbandar Koya

Although the Samoothiri of Kozhikode derived greater part of his revenue from taxing the Indian Ocean spice trade, but he still did not run a fully developed mercantilist state. The Samoothiris left trade in the hands of Paradesi (Middle Eastern) and Kerala Muslims.^[55]

Shahbandar Koya (sometimes Khwaja, popularly known as the "Koya of Kozhikode") was a privileged administrative position in Kozhikode.^[47] The Shahbandar was the second most important official in most Asian polities after the ruler.^[59] Trade at the port of Kozhikode was controlled by this Muslim merchant-cum-port commissioner. He supervised customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities, and collected the share to the treasury. As the farmer of customs he also had right collect brokerage and poll tax at the port.^[10]

According to tradition, it was a merchant from Muscat, Oman who induced to the Samoothiri to the conquer Valluvanadu. The Koya was subsequently appointed as the "Shahbandar" by the Samoothiri of Kozhikode. He is also given "all the privileges and dignities of a Nair chief, jurisdiction over all the Muslims residing in the bazaar of Kozhikode, the right to receive a present from the Ilavar (the Tiyyar), the Kammalar (the smiths, carpenters, stone workers etc.) and the Mukkuvar whenever the Samoothiri conferred any honours on them on ceremonial occasions".^[10]

Revenue and trade

The Samoothiri of Kozhikode derived greater part of his revenues by taxing spice trade.^[41]^[60] Trade – both coastal and overseas – was dominated the Muslims, though Jews, Chettis from Coromandel Coast, and Vanias from Gujarat all traded in and from Kozhikode. The Muslim traders included natives (Mappilas and Marakkars) as well as Muslims from the Middle East. The foreigners dominated the lucrative Indian Ocean spice trade.^[45]^[335]

The goods carried across the Arabian Sea included spices – pepper, ginger and cardamom – and trans-shipped textiles, and coconut products. The import into Kozhikode consisted of gold and copper, silver, horses (Kannur especially), silk, various aromatics, and other minor items.^[45] The Indian coastal trade network encompassed commodities such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and rice. Rice was a major import item into the kingdom of Kozhikode from Canara and Coromandel Coast.^[45] Low-value but high-volume trade in foodstuffs that passed through the Gulf of Mannar was also handled by the native Muslims from Malabar Coast. The local people were suppliers and consumers of goods in Kozhikde ports.^[61]

The coins minted in Kozhikode included Panam (made of gold), Taram (made of silver) and Kasu (made of copper). The officer in-charge of the mint was called the "Goldsmith of Manavikraman". The royal mint was destroyed in 1766.^[4]

Coins in circulation in the pre-Portuguese kingdom of Kozhikode included gold coins called Pagoda/Pratapa, silver Tangas of Gujarat, of Bijapur, of Vijayanagara and the Larines of Persia, Xerafins of Cairo, the Venetian and the Genoan ducats.^[11] Other coins in circulation in the kingdom of Kozhikode - in sometime or other - included Riyal ("Irayal"), Dirhma ("Drama"), Rupee ("Uruppika"), Rasi ("Rachi"), and Venadu Chakram. Venadu coins - it seems - came to circulation after the Mysorean interlude.^[8]

Rasi later gave way to the Kaliyuga Rayan Panam. Of Kaliyuga Rayan Panam there were two varieties. One of these (issued by Kannur) was afterwards imitated by the Samoothiri called Virarayan Putiya Panam, to distinguish it from the coin of Kannur, which then became Pazhaya Panam. The four Pazhaya Panams made a Rupee while three and half Putiya Panams equalled a Rupee.^[8]

Military

Kozhikode's attitude towards the vanquished chiefs and European governors was generally marked by moderation. The whole conquered area was not ruled directly from Kozhikode but was ruled by a Kozhikode official (general, minister or Eradi prince). Sometimes, its former rulers allowed to rule as a vassal or feudatory.^[4]

Kozhikode forces consisted mainly of feudal levies, brought by the vassal rulers and chiefs. The former were divided into five classes (Commanders of the Five Thousand, of the Thousand, of the Five Hundred, of the Three Hundred, and of the Hundred). Standing armies were kept at strategic locations like Kozhikode, Ponnani, Chavakkad, Chunganadu etc. Dharmottu Panikkar – the instructor in arms – commanded the warriors. The nominal cavalry was commanded by the Kuthiravattattu Nair. Nair militia was slow moving as compared to the cavalry, and always fought on foot.^[4]

The use of firearms and balls had been known before the advent of the Portuguese. As gunpowder and shot made by the natives were poor quality, Kozhikode later employed the Europeans to manufacture them. The Mappilas formed the main corps of musketeers, led by Thinayancheri Elayathu.^[4]

Kunjali Marakkars

The Kunjali Marakkars effectively functioned the naval commanders of the Kozhikode Samoothiri in the 16th century. The Mappila seamen were famous for their naval guerrilla warfare and hand-to-hand fighting on board.^[4] The Mappila vessels, small, lightly armed, and highly mobile, were a major threat to the Portuguese shipping all along the Indian west coast.^[55] But the Mappila artillery was inferior, and the vessels were incapable of large scale joint/organised operations.^[4] Merchants drew Mappila corsairs and used them to transport the spices past Portuguese blockades.^[43]

Historians speculate that the Marakkars were primarily suppliers of food materials from the ports of the Coromandel Coast and spices from interior Kerala and Sri Lanka.^[62] Some assume that the Marakkars, before the beginning of the hostilities with the Portuguese, were traders of rice from Konkan.^[47]^[357] One Ismail Marakkar seems to be a prominent rice trader in Kochi.^[47] During the early years of Portuguese presence in Kerala the native Muslim merchants of Kochi - such as Cherina/Karine Mecar (Karim Marakkar), Mamale (Muhammed) Marakkar, Mitos Marakkarm, Nino Marakkar, Ali Apule, Coje Mappila and Abraham Mappila etc. - acted as spice suppliers for them.^[63] The Marakkars also supplied food materials for the Portuguese settlements in Kerala. Mamale Marakkar of Cochin was the richest man in the country.^[62] These traders, along with the other big Mappila, and Syrian Christian merchants, also acted as brokers and intermediaries in the purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.^[44]

It was the commercial Interests of the Portuguese private traders in Cochin that came into the conflict with Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayar traders.^[64] By 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese and the Mappilas, in southern India and in western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.^[65]^[64]^[44] After a series of naval battles, the once powerful Chinna Kutti Ali was forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the Muslim judge of Kannur Abu Bakr Ali (1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas.^[66]^[44] By the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar IV was defeated and killed, with the help of the Samoothiri, in c. 1600 AD.^[67] Even after the execution of Marakkar IV, the title of the Kunjali Marakkar continued to exist for almost century.^[47]

List of Kozhikode Samoodiris

Historical documents rarely mentions the individual names of the Samoothiris of Kozhikode. Mana Vikrama, Mana Veda and Vira Raya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Samoothiri always being known as Manavikrama. Mana Veda might be a corruption of the Old Malayalam title "Mana Viyata".^[9] Portuguese historian Diogo de Couto was the first to attempt the construction of chronological scheme.^[68]

The following is a list of rulers of Kozhikode from "The Zamorins of Calicut" (1938) by K. V. Krishna Iyer. The first column (No.) gives the number of the Samoothiri reckoned from the founder of the ruling family, based upon de Couto's assumption that there had been 98 Samoothiris before the Samoothiri reigning in 1610.^[68]

First dynasty

The original seat of the aristocratic clan was Nediyiruppu and the head of the house was known as Nediyiruppu Mutta Eradi, a title enjoyed by the fifth in rank from the Samoothiri. Under the Kodungallur Chera rulers the Mutta Eradi governed Ernad with the title of "Ernad Utaiyar". Later the clan abandoned its ancestral house and transferred its residence to the present day Kozhikode.^[68]

Second Dynasty

It seems that the original ruling family came to an end with the 114th Samoothiri of Kozhikode. The 115th Samoothiri, the first of the second ruling family, was the oldest of the princes adopted from Nileshwaram in 1706.^[68]

Samoothiri family today

The Samoothiris of Kozhikode returned to Kozhikode from Travancore by 1800. The Company reduced the Samoothiris to the position of "pensioned" landlord by giving them an annual payment called mali khana. Payments (mali khana) were taken over by the Government of India after independence in 1947.^[70] The royal family has been trying to get a pension from the various governments over fifty years. The Kerala government decided to award a monthly pension to members of the royal family in 2013.^[70]

At present the Samoothiri of Kozhikode is trustee to 46 Hindu temples (under Malabar Devaswom Board, as Madras H. R & C. E Act 1956) in northern Kerala, including five special grade temples, which generate a substantial revenue. The Samoothiri also has a permanent seat on the Guruvayur Sree Krishna Temple's managing committee. Zamorin’s High School – situated overlooking the Tali temple – was established in 1877 and the family manages the Zamorin’s Guruvayurappan College.^[71]^[72]

The family has sought the government's help to preserve the artefacts in their private collection. This collection include palm leaf manuscripts, swords, shields and other valuables.^[73] Malabar Devaswom Board Commissioner recently proposed to the Kerala state government that the temples under the hereditary (private) trustees – such as the Samoothiri – should be attached to the Board.^[74]

See also

References

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2. ^¹Ma Huan's Ying-yai Sheng-lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' [1433]. Translated and Edited by J. V. G. Mills. Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society (1970).
3. ^¹Varier, M. R. Raghava. "Documents of Investiture Ceremonies" in K. K. N. Kurup, Edit., "India's Naval Traditions". Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1997
4. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹³²³³³⁴³⁵³⁶³⁷³⁸³⁹⁴⁰⁴¹⁴²⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁵⁴⁶⁴⁷⁴⁸⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹⁵²⁵³⁵⁴⁵⁵⁵⁶⁵⁷⁵⁸⁵⁹⁶⁰⁶¹⁶²⁶³⁶⁴⁶⁵⁶⁶⁶⁷⁶⁸K. V. Krishna Iyer, Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806. Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938.
5. ^¹²³⁴Eila M.J. Campbell, Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, "Vasco da Gama." Encyclopædia Britannica Online [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vasco-da-Gama]
6. ^[https://www.britannica.com/place/Kerala#toc46335 William A. Noble. "Kerala" Encyclopædia Britannica Online]
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8. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵V. V., Haridas. "King court and culture in medieval Kerala – The Zamorins of Calicut (AD 1200 to AD 1767)". Unpublished PhD Thesis. Mangalore University
9. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹²⁰²¹²²²³{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=n6CNHAAACAAJ&dq=Perumals+of+Kerala&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiSga2D9I3eAhWMKY8KHU9uDrEQ6AEIKDAA|title=Perumals of Kerala: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumals of Makotai (c. 800 A.D.-1124 A.D.)|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|date=1996|publisher=Xavier Press|language=en}}
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14. ^Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650. Cambridge University Press, 2002
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