| 词条 | Anastrepha | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
| image = Caribbean fruit fly Anastrepha suspensa.jpg | image_caption = Anastrepha suspensa | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Arthropoda | classis = Insecta | ordo = Diptera | familia = Tephritidae | subfamilia = Trypetinae | genus = Anastrepha | genus_authority = Schiner, 1868 | subdivision_ranks = | subdivision = | synonyms = *Anastrepha Schiner, 1868
}} Anastrepha is the most diverse genus in the American tropics and subtropics. Currently, it comprises more than 300 described species, including nine major pest species, such as the Mexican fruit fly (A. ludens), the South American fruit fly (A. fraterculus complex), the West Indian fruit fly (A. obliqua), the sapote fruit fly (A. serpentina), the Caribbean fruit fly (A. suspensa), the American guava fruit fly (A. striata), and the pumpkin fruit fly (A. grandis), as well as the papaya fruit fly (formerly Toxotrypana curvicada and T. littoralis). As some of their names suggest, these pest species cause damage in commercial fruits such as citrus, mango, guava, and papaya. Biology and EcologyNatural history and life cycleFemales lay their eggs in developing and healthy fruits. The vast majority of species use their ovipositor to deposit the eggs in the edible part of the fruit (either the epicarp or mesocarp), and some species such as A. hamata and A. intermedia lay the eggs in the seed. [1] [2][3] {{Multiple image| align = center | direction = horizontal | total_width = | image1 = Anastrepha on punpkin.JPG | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Caribbean fruit fly larvae on fruit.jpg | caption2 = | header = | image3 = Anastrepha ludens 1322089.jpg }} Host plantsLarvae attack plants in the families Sapotaceae, Moraceae, Malvaceae, Myrtaceae, Passifloraceae, Anacardiaceae, and Rutaceae. Larvae feed on the pulp or on the seeds.[4] Host plant information for the major pest species is available online in the Compendium of Fruit Fly Host Information (https://coffhi.cphst.org/). Gradient of altitude and habitatSpecies of this genus are found across a wide range of altitude and habitats. The gradient of altitude has been documented from 0 - 2.600 m above sea level, but the highest diversity is found below 1,000 m. One extreme exception is the morphotype Brazil 1 in the Anastrepha fraterculus complex that attacks peach, apple, cherry in a dry, temperate and high valley system (Valle Sagrado de los Incas, Cusco, Peru) at 2,600 m. Common pest species are abundant and found in crops, orchards., backyard trees, and rare species occur in secondary or primary forest, and edges or boundaries of patches of forest between 750-820 m.[5] Anastrepha is mainly associated with tropical rainforests, but it is also found in subtropical regions such as southern of Florida. However, Anastrepha tehuacana was described and documented from a Mojave dessert in Puebla, Mexico, and its host plant is Euphorbia tehuacana and feeds on the seeds.[6] Taxonomy and SystematicsPhylogenetics and TaxonomyAnastrepha is morphologically and molecularly classified in 23 species group[7]. However, the most recent molecular phylogeny suggested to split the genus in 27 groups, including those species in the former genus Toxotrypana.[8] Norrbom et al. proposed to synonymize Toxotrypana and keep the genus name Anastrepha because it comprises more pest species of agricultural importance.[9][10] Also, they proposed nomenclature changes where all the seven originally described species in Toxotrypana are now under the genus Anastrepha as follows: Anastrepha australis (Blanchard 1960), Anastrepha curvicauda (Gerstaecker 1860), Anastrepha littoralis (Blanchard 1960), Anastrepha nigra (Blanchard 1960), Anastrepha picciola (Blanchard 1960), Anastrepha proseni (Blanchard 1960), Anastrepha recurcauda (Tigrero 1992). Additionally, a new name was assigned to the species previously known Anastrepha nigra Norrbom & Korytkowski, 2009 which is now Anastrepha nigrina Norrbom, 2018 because of priority rule. Cryctic speciesThe Anastrepha fraterculus complex is still a mystery that remains unsolved. This began in 1942 when Stone observed morphological differences between populations from Central America and South America.[11] Since then, adult and larvae morphology, molecular, isozyme, karyotype, host plants relationships, behavioral and mating compatibility have been studied. The conclusion from a group with multidisciplinary expertise is that Anastrepha fraterculus sensu latus comprises eight cryptic species (morphotypes) with a wide range of geographical distribution.[12][13][14] One of them occur in Mexico and Central America (Mexican morphotype), and seven are found in South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas, Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Argentina, Peru, Ecuador); and four are recognizable and well documented morphotypes (Mexican, Andean, Peruvian and Brazil 1) which are distinguishable and represent biological species.[12] [13][15] Also, these cryptic species have a wide host plant range, and they attack 124 host plant species in 39 plant families.[16] Thus, eight morphotypes are recognized, geographical distribution and host plant are better understood, but morphological and molecular techniques are still unreliable to identify specimens within this complex.[14] [13] [15] Larval morphologyThe Immature stages of Anastrepha are poorly known. There are only 20 Anastrepha species with thorough description of eggs which include photomicroscopy. With regard to larval description, there are only 22 thorough description of the third instar-larval which represent less than 10% of the total number of described species to date.[17] Ideally, a complete larval description should include a combination of drawings and imagery (using compound microscope and SEM) of the morphological structures such as antennal and maxillary sensory organ, oral ridges, Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (CPS), both dorsal and ventral spinules, and anterior and posterior spiracles.[18][19][20][21][17] In addition, larval morphology has not found characters with phylogenetic signal yet.[22] One of the limitation has been acquiring the specimens from a broader range of geographical distribution, and larvae have been mostly described from one location (one country) or colony culture instead. Also, description of third-instar larval is only known from 11 species groups which are mostly represented by one or two Anastrepha species.[17] Thirdly, feeding behavior (pulp or seed feeder) has not been very well documented and included as a evolutionary trait to enhance the phylogeny reconstruction. Thus, collection and description of immature stages of more species is badly needed to identify synapomorphies among the species group. {{Multiple image| align = center | direction = | total_width = | image1 = Anastrepha ludens larva oral ridges.jpg | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = Anastrepha ludens larva anterior spiracle.jpg | caption2 = | image3 = Anastrepha ludens larva posterior spiracle.jpg | Image4 = Anastrepha ludens larva anal lobes.jpg | background color = orange | image4 = Anastrepha ludens larva anal lobes.jpg | header = Morphological characters | Image5 = | image5 = Anastrepha obliqua larva.jpg }}
References{{Commonscat|Anastrepha}}1. ^{{Cite book|title=Fruit flies (Tephritidae): Phylogeny and evolution of behavior|last=Edited by M. Aluja and A. L. Norrbom|first=|publisher=CRC Press, Boca Raton.|year=1999|isbn=0-8493-1275-2|location=Boca Raton, Florida|pages=375-406}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q1946735}}2. ^{{Cite journal|last=Allen L. Norrbom & Cheslavo A. Korytkowski|first=|date=2012|title=New species of Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae), with a key for the species of the megacantha clade|url=|journal=Zootaxa|volume=3478|pages=510-552|via=}} 3. ^{{Cite book|title=Fruit flies (Tephritidae): Phylogeny and evolution of behavior|last=Edited by M. Aluja and A. L. Norrbom|first=|publisher=CRC Press, Boca Raton.|year=1999|isbn=0-8493-1275-2|location=Boca Raton, Florida|pages=363-373}} 4. ^{{Cite book|title=Fruit flies (Tephritidae): Phylogeny and evolution of behavior|last=Edited by M. Aluja and A. L. Norrbom|first=|publisher=CRC Press, Boca Raton.|year=1999|isbn=0-8493-1275-2|location=Boca Raton, Florida|pages=299-342}} 5. ^{{Cite journal|last=Erick J. Rodriguez|first=|date=2010|title=Evaluacion de trampas y atrayentes para la captura de especies del genero Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae)|url=|journal=Central American Program of Entomology, Graduate School at the University of Panama.|volume=Thesis of Mater Science in Entomology, University of Panama, Republic of Panama|pages=83|via=}} 6. ^{{Cite journal|last=A. L. Norbom, A. L. Castillo-Meza, J. H. Garcia-Chavez, M. A. Aluja, J. Rull|first=|date=2014|title=A new species of Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae) from Euphorbia tehuacana (Euphorbiaceae) in Mexico|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3780.3.8|journal=ZOOTAXA|volume=3780(3)|pages=567-576|via=}} 7. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.delta-intkey.com/anatox/index.htm|title=Anastrepha and Toxotrypana: descriptions, illustrations, and interactive keys|last=Allen L. Norrbom, Cheslavo A. Korytkowski, Roberto A. Zucchi, Keiko Uramoto, George L. Venable, Jerrett McCormick and Michael J. Dallwitz|first=|date=2019|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}} 8. ^{{Cite journal|last=Mengual X, Kerr P. H, Norrbom A. L, Barr N. B, Lewis M. L, Stapelfeldte A. M, Scheffer S. J, Woods P, Islam M-S, Korytkowski C. A, Uramoto K, Rodriguez E. J, Sutton B. D, Nolazco N, Steck G. J, Gaimari S.|first=|date=2017|title=Phylogenetic relationships of the tribe Toxotrypanini (Diptera: Tephritidae) based on molecular characters|url=|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=113|pages=84–112.|via=}} 9. ^{{Cite journal|last=Allen L. Norrbom, Norman B. Barr, Peter Kerr, and Ximo Mengual|first=|date=2018|title=Case 3772 – Anastrepha Schiner, 1868 (Insecta, Diptera, TephriTidae): Proposed precedence over Toxotrypana Gerstaecker, 1860|url=|journal=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 75 (15 September 2018) ISSN 2057-0570 (online)|volume=75(1)|pages=165-169|via=}} 10. ^{{Cite journal|last=Allen L. Norrbom, Norman B. Barr, Peter Kerr, Ximo Mengual, Norma Nolazco, Erick J. Rodriguez, Gary J. Steck, Bruce D. Sutton, Keiko Uramoto, Roberto A. Zucchi|first=|date=2018|title=Synonymy of Toxotrypana Gerstaecker with Anastrepha Schiner (Diptera: Tephritidae)|url=|journal=Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington|volume=120(4)|pages=834-841|via=}} 11. ^{{Cite journal|last=Alan Stone|first=|date=1942|title=The fruit flies of the genus Anastrepha|url=|journal=United States Department of Agriculture, miscellaneous publication|volume=439|pages=1-112|via=}} 12. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Hernández-Ortiz V, Bartolucci AF, Morales-Valles P, Frías D, Selivon D|first=|date=2012|title=Cryptic species of the Anastrepha fraterculus complex (Diptera: Tephritidae): a multivariate approach for the recognition of South American morphotypes|url=|journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America|volume=105|pages=305-318|via=}} 13. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Hernández-Ortiz V, Canal NA, Tigrero Salas JO, Ruíz-Hurtado FM, Dzul-Cauich JF|first=|date=2015|title=Taxonomy and phenotypic relationships of the Anastrepha fraterculus complex in the Mesoamerican and Pacific Neotropical dominions (Diptera, Tephritidae)|url=|journal=ZooKeys|volume=540|pages=95-124|via=}} 14. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Jorge Hendrichs, M. Teresa Vera, Marc De Meyer, Anthony R. Clarke|first=|date=2015|title=Resolving cryptic species complexes of major tephritid pests|url=http://zookeys.pensoft.net|journal=ZooKeys|volume=540|pages=5-39|via=}} 15. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Sutton BD, Steck GJ, Norrbom AL, Rodriguez EJ, Srivastava P, Alvarado NN, Colque F, Landa EY, Sánchez JJL, Quisberth E, Peñaranda EA, Clavijo PAR, Alvarez-Baca JK, Zapata TG, Ponce P|first=|date=2015|title=Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) variation in the Anastrepha fraterculus cryptic species complex (Diptera, Tephritidae) of the Andean region|url=http://zookeys.pensoft.net|journal=ZooKeys|volume=540|pages=175-191|via=}} 16. ^{{Cite web|url=https://coffhi.cphst.org/.|title=Host plant records of the South American fruit fly, Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), Version 1.0|last=Liquido, N. J., J. Santamaria, K. L. K. Lee, A. P. K. Tateno, M. A. Hanlin, A. J. F. Ching., and S. A. Marnell|first=|date=2018|website=|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=}} 17. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Gary J. Steck, Erick J. Rodriguez, Allen L. Norrbom, Vivian S. Dutra, Beatriz Ronchi-Teles, Janisete Gomes Silva|first=|date=In press|title=Review of Anastrepha (Diptera: Tephritidae) Immature Stage Taxonomy|url=|journal=Proceeding of the 10th International Symposium on Fruit Flies of Economic Importance|volume=xxx|pages=xxx|via=}} 18. ^{{Cite journal|last=Steck, J. and R. A. Wharton|first=|date=1988|title=Description of immature stages of Anastrepha interrupta, A. limae, andA. grandis (Diptera: Tephritidae)|url=|journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America|volume=81|pages=994‒1003.|via=}} 19. ^{{Cite journal|last=Carroll, L. E. and R. A. Wharton|first=|date=1989|title=Morphology of the immature stages of Anastrepha ludens (Diptera: Tephritidae)|url=|journal=Annals of the Entomological Society of America|volume=82|pages=201‒214.|via=}} 20. ^{{Cite journal|last=Vivian S. Dutra, Beatriz Ronchi-Teles, Gary J. Steck, Elton L. Araujo, Miguel F. Souza-Filho, Adalton Raga and Janisete G. Silva|first=|date=2018b|title=Description of Larvae of Three Anastrepha Species in the Fraterculus Group (Diptera: Tephritidae)|url=|journal=Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington|volume=120(4)|pages=708-724.|via=}} 21. ^{{Cite journal|last=Vivian S. Dutra, Beatriz Ronchi-Teles, Gary J. Steck, Erick J. Rodriguez, Allen L. Norrbom, Bruce D. Sutton and Janisete G. Silva|first=|date=2018a|title=Description of the Larvae of Anastrepha curitis, Anastrepha pickeli and Anastrepha pulchra (Diptera: Tephritidae)|url=|journal=Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington|volume=120(1)|pages=9-24.|via=}} 22. ^{{Cite book|title=Fruit flies (Tephritidae): Phylogeny and evolution of behavior|last=Edited by M. Aluja and A. L. Norrbom|first=|publisher=CRC Press, Boca Raton.|year=1999|isbn=0-8493-1275-2|location=Boca Raton, Florida|pages=299-342}} 3 : Trypetinae|Tephritidae genera|Taxa named by Ignaz Rudolph Schiner |
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