| 词条 | Heqin |
| 释义 |
|t={{linktext|和親}} |s={{linktext|和亲}} |w=Ho-ch‘in |p=Héqīn |l={{nowrap|peace marriage}} }} Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese emperors marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the royal family—to rulers of neighboring states.{{sfnb|Slobodník|2006|p=268}} It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the Chinese emperor and the foreign ruler. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.{{sfnb|Slobodník|2006|p=268}} Lou Jing ({{zh|c=娄敬}}, later granted the royal surname Liu), the architect of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to the Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, following the Battle of Baideng two years prior.{{sfnp|Di Cosmo|2004|p=193}}[1] Wang Zhaojun, of the Han dynasty, and Princess Wencheng, of the Tang dynasty, are among the most famous heqin princesses. Heqin was never again practiced by any Han Chinese dynasty after the Tang. The 20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.{{sfnb|Bulag|2002|p=83}} Han DynastyThere were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han Dynasty.{{sfnb|Cui|2005|pages=631–688}}[1]
Sixteen Kingdoms PeriodDuring the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (ie daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.{{sfnb|Cui|2005|pages=631–688}}
Southern and Northern DynastiesDuring the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was also divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.{{sfnb|Cui |2005|pages=631–688}} During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of heqin marriage.
Sui DynastyWith the establishment of the Sui dynasty in 581, China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.{{sfnb|Cui |2005|pages=631–688}} There were a total of seven instances of heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.
Tang DynastyDuring the Tang Dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were aimed primarily at five major states that bordered Tang China: Tuyuhun, the Tibetan Empire, the Khitans and the allied Kumo Xi, the Uyghur Khaganate, and Nanzhao.{{sfnb|Cui|2005|pages=631–688}} There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:
There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty. 640—690: five instances, to Tuyuhun, and one instance to the Tibetan Empire 710—745: four instances to Khitans, three instances to the Kumo Xi and one instance to the Tibetan Empire 758—821: seven instances to Uyghur Khaganate, including two daughters of the Chinese Emperor, i.e. real princesses, and three of Tiele descent. 883: one occurrence to Nanzhao (second daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang). Yuan dynastyThe Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song (personal name Zhao Xian) surrendered to the Yuan dynasty Mongols in 1276 and was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Zhao Xian had one son with the Borjigin Mongol woman, Zhao Wanpu. Zhao Xian's son Zhao Wanpu was kept alive by the Mongols because of his mother's royal Mongolian Borjigin ancestry even after Zhao Xian was ordered killed by the Mongol Emperor Yingzong. Instead Zhao Wanpu was only moved and exiled. The outbreak of the Song loyalist Red Turban Rebellion in Henan led to a recommendation that Zhao Wanpu should be transferred somewhere else by an Imperial Censor in 1352. The Yuan did not want the Chinese rebels to get their hands on Zhao Wanpu so no one was permitted to see him and Zhao Wanpu's family and himself were exiled to Shazhou near the border by the Yuan Emperor. Paul Pelliot and John Andrew Boyle commented on Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's chapter The Successors of Genghis Khan in his work Jami' al-tawarikh, identified references by Rashid al-Din to Zhao Xian in his book where he mentions a Chinese ruler who was an "emir" and son-in-law to the Qan (Khan) after being removed from his throne by the Mongols and he is also called "Monarch of Song", or Suju (宋主 Songzhu) in the book.[2] Ming dynastyThe Oirat leader Esen Taishi captured the Chinese Ming dynasty Zhengtong Emperor. Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen's sister in a heqin marriage[3] and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife.[4][5][6] The emperor rejected the marriage proposal.[7] A Mongol account in the Altan Tobchi said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with a Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner.[8] A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong) to a Han Chinese, Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.[9] XiongnuThe Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.[10][11][12][13] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.[14][15] Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.[16] Northern WeiThe Xianbei Tuoba royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.[17] Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,[18][19] Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (265–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.[20] Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.[21] When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong 司馬金龍. Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.[22] RouranThe Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei.[23][24] Turkic KhaganateThe Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese[25][26] Qu family which originated from Gansu.[27] Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.[28] The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.[29][30] Uighur Ganzhou KingdomThe Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.[31][32][33] Kingdom of KhotanThe Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.[34] Liao dynastyThe Khitan Liao dynasty arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.[35][36][37] Han Chinese Geng family intermarried with the Khitan and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin.[38] Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.[39] Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.[40] His wife was also known as "Madame Han".[41] The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.[42][43] Lý dynasty VietnamThe Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý princess (Lý Chiêu Hoàng) and a member of the Chinese Trần (Chen) clan (Trần Thái Tông), which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty.[44][45] A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later established the Hồ dynasty which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, Hồ Quý Ly.[46][47] Qing dynastyThe preferred marriage partners for imperial daughters in Qing dynasty was Mongols rather than Chinese. More than 58 percent of imperial son-in-law were Mongols.[48] The Manchus considered Mongols as their "brother state" since they shared similar values. In early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Manchu rulers used this tie to gain the military support of Mongolia. The marriage also benefited the Qing Dynasty in expanding its empire to the best during the first decades. The marriage between Manchu princesses and Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing Dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of Mongolia's political and military influence.[48] Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu in early Qing were sometimes married to imperial daughters, although this is much less frequent than the case where Aisin Giroro women married to Mongolian aristocrats or other Manchu elite. Unlike the marriage between Manchu and Mongolians that lasted throughout the Qing Dynasty, the marriages between Emperor's daughters and Han Generals ceased before 1750.[48] The Manchu Imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming Generals and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu side during the Manchu conquest of China. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters, a daughter of Abatai, to the Ming General Li Yongfang 李永芳,[49][50][51][52] the ancestor of Li Shiyao 李侍堯.[53][54] The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" ({{zh|c=三等子爵|p=sān děng zǐjué|labels=no}}) title[55] after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 (Prince Keqin) and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.[56][57] Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克, Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei).[58] The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Prince Abatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.[59] A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 (Prince An) was wedded to Geng Juzhong who was another son of Geng Jingmao.[60] The 4th daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to the son (孫承恩) of the Han Chinese Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克.[61] Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Chinese Banner General Nian Gengyao.[62][63][64] Joseon KoreaAfter the Qing invasion of Joseon, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon.[65][66][67][68][69][70][71] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).[72] She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).[73] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.[74] Nguyen Lords in VietnamThe Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618.[75][76] In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City.[77][78] See also
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Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=41–}} 14. ^{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012|title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001|editor=Veronika Veit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen|series= |year=2007|location=|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|language=|isbn=3447055375|page=61|pages= }} 15. ^{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012 |title=Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history |author=Michael Robert Drompp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library|series=|year=2005|location= |publisher=BRILL|language=|isbn=9004141294|page=126|pages= }} 16. ^{{cite book |author=Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) |title=秦漢史 |trans-title=History of Qin and Han |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |year=1992 |publisher=Wunan Publishing |isbn=978-957-11-0574-1 |pages=557–8}} 17. ^{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=80–}} 18. ^{{harvp|Lee|2014}}. 19. ^{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess&dq=liu+hui+wei+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB-ZTVz7fNAhXEVD4KHYfgAzwQ6AEIJzAC|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86}} 20. ^{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA30&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEILTAD#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=30–}} 21. ^{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1566&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–}} 22. ^{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q=sima&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=18–}} 23. ^{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC&pg=PA316#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2007|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-4182-3|pages=316–}} 24. ^Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife. 25. ^{{cite book|author=Baij Nath Puri|title=Buddhism in Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0372-5|pages=78–}} 26. ^{{cite book|author1=Charles Eliot|author2=Sir Charles Eliot|title=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbPgG6ondlUC&pg=PA206#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-0679-2|pages=206–}} 27. ^{{cite book|author=Marc S. Abramson|title=Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA119&dq=gaochang+chu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8GzYUt_vK8i3sATA54CgBQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=gaochang%20chu&f=false|date=31 December 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-0101-9|pages=119–}} 28. ^{{cite book|author=Roy Andrew Miller|title=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty [Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b]: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5z04Q046UgC&pg=PA5&dq=kao+ch%27ang&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjF_ou32v3MAhWJFh4KHYcRDEgQ6AEIVjAH#v=onepage&q=kao%20ch%27ang&f=false|year=1959|publisher=University of California Press|pages=5–|id=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY}} 29. ^{{cite book|author=Jonathan Karam Skaff|title=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640-756).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDgfAQAAMAAJ&q=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&dq=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H8OoVMHvJ8adNoCLhOgI&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=1998|publisher=University of Michigan.|page=57}} 30. ^{{cite book|title=Asia Major|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O8VAQAAMAAJ&q=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&dq=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjluKiu2v3MAhXCJB4KHdhLAmgQ6AEIMjAB|year=1998|publisher=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica|page=87}} 31. ^{{cite book|title=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIa9sere_8C&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=7 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-25233-9|pages=44–}} 32. ^{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=63–}} 33. ^{{cite book|author1=Wenjie Duan|author2=Chung Tan|title=Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&pg=PA189&dq=Cao+Yijin+Shengtian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xMo9VIbFM67lsAT-4YKgCA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yijin%20Shengtian&f=false|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-313-7|pages=189–}} 34. ^{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA23&dq=Cao+Yanlu+Khotan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Xz_FVNuqNsuqggTok4LIBA&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yanlu%20Khotan&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=23–}} 35. ^[https://www.academia.edu/3806884/Michal_Biran._Khitan_Migrations_in_Inner_Asia_Central_Eurasian_Studies_3_2012_85-108 Biran 2012, p. 88.] 36. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20140414060414/http://cces.snu.ac.kr/article/jces3_4biran.pdf Biran 2012, p. 88.] 37. ^Cha 2005, p. 51. [https://www.amazon.co.uk/lives-907-1125-aristocratic-women-China/dp/0542321823] 38. ^{{cite book|title=Political Strategies of Identity Building in Non-Han Empires in China|editor-last1=Fiaschetti|editor-first1=Francesca|editor-last2=Schneider|editor-first2=Julia|chapter=Fan and Han: The Origins and Uses of a Conceptual Dichotomy in Mid-Imperial China, ca. 500-1200|last=Yang|first=Shao-yun|url=https://www.academia.edu/4886627/Fan_and_Han_The_Origins_and_Uses_of_a_Conceptual_Dichotomy_in_Mid-Imperial_China_ca._500-1200|year=2014|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|location=Wiesbaden|page=22}} 39. ^{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+mother+%28a+lady+of+Xiao%29+was+a+sister+of+Empress+Rende+of+the+Liao+Dynasty.+Queen+dowager+of&dq=General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+mother+%28a+lady+of+Xiao%29+was+a+sister+of+Empress+Rende+of+the+Liao+Dynasty.+Queen+dowager+of&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMI36fp0NLbxwIVS1Y-Ch01YAB8|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41}} 40. ^{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&dq=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMIjbqFi-7bxwIViVQ-Ch1kRAXx|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41}} 41. ^{{cite book|author1=Hsueh-man Shen|author2=Asia Society|author3=Asia Society. Museum|author4=Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst (Berlin, Germany), Museum Rietberg|title=Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907-1125)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX8YAAAAYAAJ&q=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&dq=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMI7s-BiO7bxwIVgQg-Ch1a0Qoz|date=1 September 2006|publisher=5 continents|isbn=978-88-7439-332-9|page=106}} 42. ^{{cite book|author=Jiayao An|title=Early Chinese Glassware|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnzrAAAAMAAJ&q=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&dq=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMIjfiLmO7bxwIVSBw-Ch3a-gHQ|year=1987|publisher=Millennia|page=12}} 43. ^http://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_ 44. ^{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall |title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622232838/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archivedate=22 June 2015 |year=2008 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0 |pages=159– |deadurl=yes |df= }} 45. ^{{cite book|author1=Ainslie Thomas Embree |author2=Robin Jeanne Lewis |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022122029/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |page=190 |df= }} 46. ^{{cite book|author=K. W. Taylor|title=A History of the Vietnamese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=9 May 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87586-8|pages=166–}} 47. ^{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|pages=161–}} 48. ^1 2 {{Cite book|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History.|last=Walthall|first=Anne|publisher=University of California Pr.|year=2008|isbn=|location=|pages=149–150}} 49. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203055230/http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |archive-date=2017-12-03 |dead-url=yes |df= }} 50. ^http://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} 51. ^http://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html 52. ^https://read01.com/aP055D.html 53. ^http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/LI_SHIH-YAO.html 54. ^http://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html 55. ^{{cite book|author=Evelyn S. Rawski|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=15 November 1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92679-0|pages=72–}} 56. ^{{cite book|author=Anne Walthall|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148&dq=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong,+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618,+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city,+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&hl=en&ei=O-ChToi7Jsn20gHW4ayvCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=To%20win%20the%20support%20and%20cooperation%20of%20Ming%20generals%20in%20Liaodong%2C%20Nurhaci%20gave%20them%20Aisin%20Gioro%20women%20as%20wives.%20In%201618%2C%20before%20he%20attacked%20Fushun%20city%2C%20he%20promised%20the%20Ming%20general%20defending%20the%20city%20a%20woman%20from%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan&f=false|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25444-2|pages=148–}} 57. ^{{cite book|author=Frederic Wakeman|title=Fall of Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79&dq=Li+was+made+a+banner+general,+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs,+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li%27s+surrender+at+the+time+was+exceptional,+his+integration+into+the+Manchu+elite+was+only+the+first&hl=en&ei=WuGhTtyJO6Lx0gHC16WfBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Li%20was%20made%20a%20banner%20general%2C%20was%20given%20gifts%20of%20slaves%20and%20serfs%2C%20and%20was%20betrothed%20to%20a%20young%20woman%20of%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan.%20Although%20Li%27s%20surrender%20at%20the%20time%20was%20exceptional%2C%20his%20integration%20into%20the%20Manchu%20elite%20was%20only%20the%20first&f=false|date=1 January 1977|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-02-933680-9|pages=79–}} 58. ^{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–180}} 59. ^{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1017–}} 60. ^{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1018#v=onepage&q&f=false6|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1018–}} 61. ^{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–}} 62. ^{{cite book|author=唐博|title=清朝權臣回憶錄|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSi4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108&dq=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_bLcwOLOAhUElR4KHZkXAq8Q6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&f=false|year=2010|publisher=遠流出版|isbn=978-957-32-6691-4|pages=108–}} 63. ^{{cite book|author=施樹祿|title=世界歷史戰事傳奇|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA198&dq=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_bLcwOLOAhUElR4KHZkXAq8Q6AEILDAC#v=onepage&q=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&f=false|date=17 May 2012|publisher=華志文化|isbn=978-986-5936-00-6|pages=198–}} 64. ^{{cite news|last=|first=|date=7 March 2016|title=清代第一战神是谁? 年羹尧和岳钟琪谁的成就更高?|url=http://www.lishi.com/news/201603/7645.html|newspaper=历史网|location=|access-date=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828192434/http://www.lishi.com/news/201603/7645.html|archive-date=28 August 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}} 65. ^{{cite book|author1=Frank W. Thackeray |author2=John E. Findling |title=Events That Formed the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924000057/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=24 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |date=31 May 2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-901-1 |pages=200– |df= }} 66. ^{{cite book|author=Arthur W. Hummel |title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022124057/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1991 |publisher=SMC publ. |isbn=978-957-638-066-2 |page=217 |df= }} 67. ^{{cite book|author=Library of Congress. Orientalia Division |title=清代名人傳略: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022133653/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1943 |publisher=經文書局 |page=217 |df= }} 68. ^{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930140358/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=30 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04804-1 |pages=892– |df= }} 69. ^{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson |title=Imperial China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134507/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1972 |publisher=Hutchinson |page=275 |df= }} 70. ^{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson|title=Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFtxAAAAMAAJ&q=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&dq=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6aZsVdTuM4v3yQSQnoO4Dg&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA|year=1976|publisher=Penguin|page=306}} 71. ^DORGON 72. ^{{cite book|title=梨大史苑 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134944/https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1968 |publisher=梨大史學會 |page=105 |df= }} 73. ^http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32 74. ^{{cite book|author=Li Ling |title=Son of Heaven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022135113/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1995 |publisher=Chinese Literature Press |isbn=978-7-5071-0288-8 |page=217 |df= }} 75. ^Mai Thục, Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử, Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa - thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ, Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31-33; Helen Jarvis, Cambodia, Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii. 76. ^{{cite book|url=http://www.sacei07.org/women10.jsp|title=The Women of Vietnam|series=Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum|author1=Nghia M. Vo |author2=Chat V. Dang |author3=Hien V. Ho |publisher=Outskirts Press|date=29 August 2008 |isbn=1-4327-2208-5}} 77. ^{{cite book|title=Cambodia: report from a stricken land|author=Henry Kamm|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtBkD5CoIMkC&lpg=PA23&ots=Uv-qTIXI2z&dq=chey%20chettha%20II&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=chey%20chettha%20II&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=1-55970-433-0|page=23}} 78. ^{{cite web|url=http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|title=Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn|accessdate=16 June 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413074249/http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|archivedate=13 April 2009|df=}} Bibliography
5 : Chinese words and phrases|History of the foreign relations of China|History of Imperial China|Types of marriage|Marriage, unions and partnerships in China |
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