词条 | Casuarina pauper |
释义 |
|image = Belah - Botanic Gardens Canberra.JPG |genus = Casuarina |species = pauper |authority = F.Muell. ex L.A.S.Johnson }} Casuarina pauper is a tree from the Casuarinaceae family, native to a band across the drier, inland areas of southern Australia ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}). C. pauper is known as a poorer, stunted form of the closely related Casuarina cristata ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}). Common names include black oak and belah ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). DescriptionCasuarina pauper is a dioecious tree, 5 to 15 metres tall and up to 0.5 metre in diameter ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}; {{harvnb|Callister|2004}}). Specimens growing in the open often develop a dense crown, and when growing in dense stands the main stem tends to be straight for more than half the total height ({{harvnb|National Research Council|1984}}). The foliage is not composed of true leaves but rather of jointed branchlets that function like leaves ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}). The true leaves are tiny, tooth-like structures protruding from around the top of each joint ({{harvnb|DAFF|}}). Leaves are strongly waxy, densely and very shortly hairy, with teeth spreading to recurved ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}). Bark is hard, dark brown to blackish, with a tight scaly appearance ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}). Sapwood is wide and creamy coloured, heartwood is reddish brown and very dense ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Seedlings consist of both deciduous and persistent branches similar in morphology. Whorls of 4 leaf teeth are closely oppressed to the branch at the joint, gradually increasing in number, with internodes being 0.3–0.4 cm long ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Adult plants consist of both deciduous and permanent branches, which are noticeably different in morphology ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). The deciduous branches are robust, dark olive-green to grey, consisting of mostly pendent branchlets 10–20 cm long, shed after 2–3 seasons ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Erect leaf teeth occur in whorls of 9–16, consist of internodes of approximately 0.7–1.5 cm long, spreading to recurved ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). As the species is dioecious, male and female inflorescences are on separate trees. Male flowers are located on small slender terminal spikes at the end of deciduous branches ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Female flowers are grouped in alternating whorls of 9–16, eventually forming a cone, which is grey, subspherical to rounded oblong in shape measuring 1.5–3 x 1.5–2.5 cm ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Bracteoles are short and tawny, pubescent and opening widely at dehiscence ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Fruits are dull yellow-brown, elliptical, flattened, up to 5.5–7.0mm long ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). TaxonomyThe word 'casuarina' is derived from the word kasuari (the Malay word for cassowary), in reference to the similarity of the tree's drooping branches to the feathers of the bird ({{harvnb|DAFF|n.d|}}). The word 'pauper' is Latin (meaning poor, scanty, meagre), relating to the smaller, poorer habit of this species when compared to C.cristata ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Previous nomenclature – Casuarina stricta ssp. pauper, Casuarina cristata, Casuarina pauper ssp. pauper, Casuarina lepidophloia, Casuarina cambagei ({{harvnb|Callister|2004}}), Casuarina cristata subsp. pauper (Miq.) L.A.S. Johnson ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}; {{harvnb|National Research Council|1984}}). Common names – Black Oak, Inland Sheoak, Belah ({{harvnb|Callister|2004}}; {{harvnb|National Research Council|1984}}). DistributionC. pauper is widespread across a band of southern Australia, including western New South Wales, north-western Victoria, inland South Australia, Central Australia, south-western Queensland, and southern inland Western Australia ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}; {{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}). C. pauper is generally found growing in groves ranging from ≤1 to 10ha ({{harvnb|Barrit|Facelli|2001}}). This species can withstand compact clay soils and high alkalinity ({{harvnb|National Research Council|1984}}). The species occurs in the altitudinal range of 400–500m, surviving in areas where the hottest month is 32–36 °C and 3–7 °C in the coldest month, being moderately tolerant of frosts. Generally located in areas averaging 200–350mm of rainfall per year ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|}}). Reproduction and dispersalC. pauper produces abundant viable seed, with regeneration success likely to be inhibited during periods of insufficient soil moisture required for seedling survival ({{harvnb|Callister|2004}}; {{harvnb|Auld|1995}}). Seeds consist of a papery transparent wing with conspicuous midrib ({{harvnb|Wilson|Johnson|1989}}), and may be dispersed by wind, surface run-off, and animals such as ants and emus ({{harvnb|Callister|2004}}). The species also regenerates from basal shoots ({{harvnb|Callister|2004}}). Vegetative recruits tend to have a high survival rate, although the survival of both forms of recruits under rabbit and kangaroo grazing is extremely low, as both are highly palatable ({{harvnb|Keith|2004}}). When present at low densities, C.pauper tends to reproduce sexually, while established groves extend mostly from the fringes through vegetative shoots, increasing the local area occupied by the individuals ({{harvnb|Barrit|Facelli|2001}}). UsesC. pauper is fast growing, and improves the levels of nitrogen in the soils, produced by biological fixation ({{harvnb|DAFF|n.d|}}), with their roots fixing atmospheric nitrogen through nodules that contain specially adapted symbiotic bacteria of the genus Frankia spp. ({{harvnb|Barrit|Facelli|2001}}; {{harvnb|DAFF|n.d|}}). This allows Casuarina species to grow on nutrient poor soils, and other limiting environments such as sandy soils or granite outcrops ({{harvnb|DAFF|n.d|}}). Casuarina species may be of benefit to farming communities as they provide an excellent source of shade, shelter and erosion control on farms, ({{harvnb|DPI|2010}}) and to a limited extent, is a source of emergency drought fodder ({{harvnb|National Research Council|1984}}). The timber they provide is hard and durable, suitable for fencing, woodturning and firewood ({{harvnb|Boland|Brooker|McDonald|2006|p. 74|}}). Indigenous people traditionally use the hard wood of Casuarina species for making a number of implements such as boomerangs, spears, clapping sticks, digging sticks, shields and clubs ({{harvnb|Merideth||Yeo|n.d|}}; {{harvnb|DAFF|n.d|}}). Young shoots and branchlets can be chewed to reduce thirst, and cones may also eaten ({{harvnb|Merideth||Yeo|n.d|}}; {{harvnb|DAFF|n.d|}}). Casuarina cones can also be soaked in water to provide a lemon flavoured drink ({{harvnb|Merideth||Yeo|n.d|}}). ConservationNot considered rare or endangered. References
| last = Auld | first = T.D | year = 1995 | title = The Impact of Herbivores on Regeneration in Four Trees from Arid Australia. | journal = The Rangeland Journal | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 213–227 | doi = 10.1071/RJ9950213 | ref = {{harvid|Auld|1995}}
| last = Barrit | first = A.R | last2 = Facelli | first2 = J.M | year = 2001 | title = Effects of Casuarina pauper litter and grove soil on emergence and growth of understory plant species in arid lands of South Australia. | journal = Journal of Arid Environments | volume = 49 | pages = 569–579 | doi = 10.1071/RJ9950213 | ref = {{harvid|Barrit|Facelli|2001}}
| last = Boland | first = D.J | last2 = Brooker | first2 = M.I.H | last3 = McDonald | first3 = M.W | year = 2006 | title = Forest Trees of Australia | work = CSIRO Publishing | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=q2v3kb9tFsYC&pg=PA78&lpg=PA78&dq=casuarina+cristata+pauper&source=bl&ots=N5isx5i2TD&sig=bZb6c3CavaxRYfAoK3s4J7Dz40A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0pX0U-WmGYGdugSNpoHoAQ&ved=0CFEQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=casuarina%20cristata%20pauper&f=false | isbn = 0643069690 | accessdate = 12 September 2014
| last = Callister | first = K.E | year = 2004 | title = Casuarina Pauper (Belah) Woodlands of Northwest Victoria: Monitoring and Regeneration | work = Thesis. University of Ballarat | url = http://researchonline.ballarat.edu.au:8080/vital/access/services/Download/vital:4116/SOURCE1?view=true | accessdate = 12 September 2014
| last = Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry | year= n.d. | title = Australian Forest Profiles – Casuarina | work = Government of Australia | url = http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/brsShop/data/casuarina.pdf | accessdate = 10 September 2014
|last = Department of Primary Industries NSW |year = n.d. |title = Belah – Paddock Plants |work = NSW Government- Industry & Environment |url = http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/private-forestry/paddock-plants/Casuarina-cristata-Belah.pdf |accessdate = 10 September 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140623152228/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/resources/private-forestry/paddock-plants/Casuarina-cristata-Belah.pdf# |archive-date = 2014-06-23 |dead-url = yes |df = }}
| last = Keith | first = D | year = 2004 | title = Ocean Shores to Desert Dunes: The Native Vegetation of New South Wales and the ACT. | location = Hurtsville | publisher = Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW)
| last = Merideth | first = S | last2 = Yeo | first2 = M | year= n.d. | title = Aboriginal Plant Use: A Primary Teacher's Guide. | work = Adelaide Botanic Garden | url = http://www.botanic.sa.edu.au/index.php/discovery-trails/32-teacher-trail-primary/333-aboriginal-plant-use | accessdate = 10 September 2014
| last = National Research Council (U.S) | first = Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation | year = 1984 | title = Casuarinas, Nitrogen-fixing Trees for Adverse Sites | work = Office of International Affairs, National Research Council | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mmErAAAAYAAJ&dq=casuarina+pauper+use&source=gbs_navlinks_s | accessdate = 19 September 2014
| last = Wilson | first = K.L | last2 = Johnson | first2 = L.A.S | title = Casuarina pauper F.Muell. ex L.A.S. Johnson | work = Flora of Australia, Volume 3 | url = http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Casuarina~pauper | accessdate = 12 September 2014{{Taxonbar|from=Q3538354}} 8 : Casuarina|Fagales of Australia|Trees of Australia|Flora of New South Wales|Flora of Queensland|Flora of South Australia|Flora of Victoria (Australia)|Flora of Western Australia |
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