| 词条 | Culture of Qatar | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
The culture of Qatar is strongly influenced by traditional Bedouin culture, with less acute influence deriving from India, East Africa and elsewhere in the Persian Gulf. The peninsula's harsh climatic conditions compelled its inhabitants to turn to the sea for sustenance. Thus, there is a distinct emphasis placed on the sea in local culture.[1] Literature and folklore themes are often related to sea-based activities. Oral arts such as poetry and singing were historically more prevalent than figurative art because of the restrictions placed by Islam on depictions of sentient beings; however, certain visual art disciplines such as calligraphy, architecture and textile arts were widely practiced. Figurative arts were gradually assimilated into the country's culture during the oil era.[2] Since 2016, Salah bin Ghanim Al Ali has been the Minister for Culture and Sports of Qatar.[3] Visual arts{{Main|Qatari art}}{{See also|Collecting practices of the Al-Thani Family}}Because of Islam's stance on figurative art, paintings and plastic arts played a relatively insignificant role in Qatari culture until the discovery of oil in the mid-20th century.[4] Other visual arts such as calligraphy and architecture were the most historically dominant forms of Islamic visual expression. Calligraphy was most prized in society because of its close connection with Islam.[5] Calligraphy is often used in the design of official state logos, for example, the Qatar National Vision 2030 logo.[6] Art exhibitions were held under the auspices of the Ministry of Education until 1972, whereupon the state began providing its full support to the art scene. The Qatari Fine Arts Society was established in 1980 with the objective of promoting the works of Qatari artists.[7] Yousef Ahmad is a leading figure of Qatar's art industry and regularly represents the country at international biennials and events. His art work has been displayed internationally.[8]For the last twenty years, several members of the Al Thani family have led Qatar’s interest and involvement into the field of arts and continue to shape the cultural policy of the country.[9] Qatar was revealed to be the world's biggest art buyer in 2011 by The Art Newspaper.[10] Qatar Museums was established in the early 2000s to build and connect all museums and collections in Qatar. Two major museums lead the institution: the Museum of Islamic Art opened in 2008,[11] and the Arab Museum of Modern Art, opened in Education City by Qatar Foundation in 2010.[12]When a quartet comprising Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain and Egypt severed all ties with and imposed a blockade of Qatar on 5 June 2017, Qatari artist Ahmed Al-Maadheed created an illustration known as "Tamim Almajd", which translates to "Tamim the Glorious". The illustration, a simple black and white sketch of Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani containing the text "Tamim Almajd" in the style of Arabic calligraphy, has become symbolic of Qatari nationalism. The image is now displayed prominently on buildings, in media and in art in Qatar.[13] Folklore{{Main|Qatari folklore}}Local folk stories were seldom documented, instead being passed down orally from generation to generation. After Qatar began profitting from oil exploration, the tradition of passing down these stories gradually ceased. Government ministries such as the Ministry of Culture and Sports and local universities have made efforts to preserve and transcribe local legends in publications.[14] Among Qatar's most noted folk heroes are Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a, a 7th-century war poet,[15] and Rahmah ibn Jabir Al Jalhami, an 18th- and 19th-century pirate and transitory leader of Qatar.[16] Recurring themes in Qatari folk tales are djinn, pearl diving, and the sea.[17] One myth that purportedly originates from Qatar is that of May and Gilan, the latter of whom is said to be progenitor of the sail. According to tradition, in old times, a wealthy man named Ghilan resided in Al Khor. Besides commanding a crew of sailors and fishermen, he owned numerous pearling boats. As time passed, a woman named May who commanded superior number of boats and crewmen emerged as Ghilan's main adversary.[18] In an incident in which both crews were attempting to harvest the same pearl bed, May taunted Ghilan as her ship raced past his. This incensed Ghilan, who set out to discover a way to best his competitor. While observing a grasshopper, Ghilan took note of how its wings worked, and applied the same principle to his boats, giving rise to the sail. This enabled his boats to travel at higher speeds, allowing him to outpace May's boats to the densest pearl beds. The myth is typically presented in five sequences and is unlike most other known Bedouin stories. According to locals of Al Khor, the myth originated from the Al Muhannadi tribe of Al Khor. The story is not well-known elsewhere in Qatar.[18] The Lord of the Sea tale is famous in Qatar as well as the rest of the Persian Gulf region. The story revolves around a water djinn in the Persian Gulf named Bū Daryā who terrorizes sailors and pearl divers. It remains a well-known tale among Qatar's older population, particularly those who worked in maritime activities.[17] Literature{{Main|Qatari literature}}Qatari literature dates back to the 19th century with poets such as Abdul Jalil Al-Tabatabai and Mohammed bin Abdullah bin Uthaymeen. However, due to widespread illiteracy in the region at this time, local written literature dating back to the 19th century is scarce.[19] The modern literature movement in Qatar began in the 1950s, during the same time as the modern arts movement. This was largely because the increased prosperity from oil extraction activities allowed Qataris to receive formal education, adopt more settled lifestyles and attend higher education institutes abroad in order to hone their creative skills.[19] Other factors involved in triggering a literary revolution were the improved social standing of women, the advent of a national identity, and the introductions of literary organisations, journalism and mass immigration.[20] Unlike most other forms of art in Qatari society, females have been involved in the literature movement on a similar magnititude to males.[21] Yousef Ni'ma introduced the first two collections of short stories in 1970, entitled Bint Al-Khaleej (Daughter of the Gulf) and Liqa fi Beirut (A Meeting in Bayrut).[20] In the 1970s, much of the early work of females revolved around ritha poems which were published in local newspapers.[22] Kaltham Jaber became the first Qatari woman to publish a collection of short stories,[23] and the first Qatari woman writer to publish a major work when she released her anthology of short stories, dating from 1973 to the year of its publishing, 1978.[24] Entitled "Ania wa Ghabat as-Samt wa at-Taraddud", the main focus of these stories is the desire for Qatari women to have a role in restructuring social norms and cultural conceptions.[25] In the late 20th and the 21st centuries, novels became popular among Qatari writers. Shu'a' Khalifa and her sister Dalal Khalifa were the first two Qatari novelists to publish their works. They accomplished this feat with the publishing of three separate novels in 1993: al-Ubur ila al-haqiqa (Passage to Truth), written by Shu'a' in 1987, Ahlam al-bahr al-qadima (The Old Dreams of the Sea), written by Shu'a' in 1990 and Usturat al-Insan wa-l-buhayra (The Myth of the Man and the Lake, written by Dalal. Their novels center around social limitations faced by women, and scrutinize long-held social values. Another important theme in their novels is the rapid societal transition experienced by Qatar since the discovery of oil.[20] Abdulaziz Al-Mahmoud published his maritime novel Al Qursan in August 2011, and it went on to become one of the best-selling books to be released by a Qatari author.[26] By June 2015, twelve Qatari women and eight Qatari men had published a collective total of thirty-nine novels.[20] Novels have proven to be one of the fastest growing categories of literature, with nearly a quarter of all existing Qatari-authored novels being published as recently as 2014. Six new female Qatari writers published novels in 2014. Similar to their predecessors, the main themes in their books are women's role in society and the social transition of Qatar.[20]PoetryPoetry has been an integral part of the culture since pre-Islamic times.[27] Qatari ibn al-Fuja'a, a folk hero dating to the seventh-century, was renowned for writing poetry.[28] It was seen as a verbal art which fulfilled essential social functions. Having a renowned poet among its ranks was a source of pride for tribes; it is the primary way in which age-old traditions are passed down generations. Poems composed by females primarily focused on the theme of ritha, to lament. This type of poetry served as an elegy.[27] Nabati was the primary form of oral poetry. In the nineteenth-century, sheikh Jassim Al Thani composed influential Nabati poems on the political conditions in Qatar.[29] Nabati poems are broadcast on radio and televised in the country.[30]Music{{Main|Music of Qatar}}The folk music of Qatar has a close association with the sea. Songs related to pearl hunting are the most popular genre of male folk music. Each song, varying in rhythm, narrates a different activity of the pearling trip, including spreading the sails, diving, and rowing the ships. Collective singing was an integral part of each pearling trip, and each ship had a designated singer, known locally as al naham.[31] Ardah, a folkloric dance, is still practiced in Qatar.[32] The dance is performed with two rows of men opposite of one another, each of whom may or may not be wielding a sword, and is accompanied by drums and spoken poetry.[33]Historically, women primarily sang work songs associated with daily activities such as wheat grinding and cooking. The songs were performed collectively in small groups some pertained to general themes, whereas others were related to specific work processes.[42] Women would also sing when returning pearl ships were sighted.[31] After a sighting was made, they would gather around the seashore where they would clap and sing about the hardships of pearl diving.[34] Sport{{Main|Sport in Qatar}}Football is the most popular sport in regard to player base and spectatorship. Additionally, athletics, basketball, handball, volleyball, camel racing, horse racing, cricket and swimming are widely practiced.[35] There are currently 11 multi-sports clubs in the country, and 7 single-sports clubs.[35]Prior to the introduction of football, traditional games played were al dahroi, al sabbah, and taq taq taqiyyah for boys, and al kunatb, al laqfah and nat al habl for girls.[36] Variations of a family of board games known as mancala were played in previous decades. Two of the most popular board games were a’ailah and al haluwsah.[36] Other traditional sports practiced in the country include falconry, camel racing and hunting.[37] Historically camel racing was a tradition among the Bedouin tribes of Qatar and would be performed on special occasions such as weddings.[38] It was not until 1972, one year after Qatar's independence, that camel racing was practiced on a professional level. Typically, camel racing season takes place from September to March. Approximately 22,000 racing camels are used in competitions which are mainly held at the country's primary camel racing venue, the Al-Shahaniya Camel Racetrack. The average distance of such races is usually 4 to 8 km depending on the conditions of the camels being raced.[39] Falconry is widely practiced by Qataris. The only falconry association is Al Gannas, which was founded in 2008 in Katara and which hosts the Annual Falconry Festival. Hunting season extends from October to April. Prices of falcons can be extremely high, being as expensive as QR 1 million.[40] Saluki dogs are also used for hunting in the desert primarily because of their great speeds. Their main prey in the desert are gazelles and rabbits.[41] Food and drink{{Main|Qatari cuisine}}As Qatar follows Shariah Law, alcohol and pork products cannot be brought into the country. Qatari cuisine reflects traditional Arab and Levantine cuisine.[42] It is also heavily influenced by Iranian and Indian cuisine. Seafood and dates are staple food items.[43] Machbūs, a meal consisting of rice, meat, and vegetables, is the national dish.[42] Alcohol is not illegal in Qatar, but its sale and consumption is heavily regulated. Muslims are prohibited from purchasing and consuming alcohol. A liquor license is required to buy alcohol.[44]{{clear}}DressClothing laws punish and forbid the wearing of revealing or indecent clothes.[45] The dressing-code law is enforced by a government body called "Al-Adheed". In 2012, a Qatari NGO organized a campaign of "public decency" after they deemed the government to be too lax in monitoring the wearing of revealing clothes; defining the latter as "not covering shoulders and knees, tight or transparent clothes".[45] The campaign targets foreigners who constitute the majority of Qatar's population.[45]Qatari men wear thawbs (a long white shirt) over loose pants. They also wear a loose headdress, a ghutra, which comes in white or red.[46] Around the ghutra is a black rope called agal, which holds it in place.[62] Qatari women generally wear customary dresses that include “long black robes” and black head cover hijab, locally called bo'shiya.[47][48] However, the more traditional Sunni Muslim clothing for women are the black colored body covering known as the abayah together with the black scarf used for covering their heads known as the shayla.[49] A burqa is sometimes worn to conceal their face.[50] It is believed that Qatari women began using face masks in the 19th century amid substantial immigration. As they had no practical ways of concealing their faces from foreigners, they began wearing the same type of face mask as their Persian counterparts.[51] Holidays{{See also|Public holidays in Qatar}}Qatar's weekends are Friday and Saturday.[52] Qatar National Day was changed from 3 September to 18 December in 2008.[53] Notable holidays in the country are listed below:
Media{{Main|Media of Qatar}}There are currently seven newspapers in circulation in Qatar, with four being published in Arabic and three being published in English.[54] Additionally, there are nine magazines.[55] All radio programmes from Qatar are state-owned and are amalgamated as the Qatar Broadcasting Service.[56] Radio broadcasting in the country began in June 1968 and English transmissions started in December 1971[57] in order to accommodate the increasing non-Arabic speaking expat community.[58][59] The QBS currently features radio stations in English, Arabic, French and Urdu.[60] Al Jazeera, currently Qatar's largest television network, was founded in 1996 and has since become the foundation of the media sector.[61] Initially launched as an Arabic news and current affairs satellite TV channel, Al Jazeera has since expanded into a network with several outlets, including the internet and specialty TV channels in multiple languages. The 'Al Jazeera effect' refers to the global impact of the Al Jazeera Media Network, particularly on the politics of the Arab world.[62]TelevisionThe multinational media conglomerate Al Jazeera Media Network is based in Doha with its wide variety of channels of which Al Jazeera Arabic, Al Jazeera English, Al Jazeera Documentary Channel, Al Jazeera Mubasher, beIN Sports Arabia and other operations are based in the TV Roundabout in the city.
Terrestrial television stations now available on Nilesat include:
RadioDoha has a variety of radio stations, some of which include: {{col-start}}{{col-3}}
See also
References1. ^{{cite book|last=Abu Saud|first=Abeer|title=Qatari Women: Past and Present|publisher=Longman Group United Kingdom|date=1984|isbn=978-0582783720|page=133}} {{Qatar topics}}{{Culture of Asia}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Culture Of Qatar}}2. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 134 3. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.oxgaps.org/files/interview_al_ali.pdf|title=Interview: H.E. Salah bin Ghanem Al Ali - Minister of Culture and Sports - State of Qatar|publisher=Oxford Gulf & Arabian Peninsula Forum|year=2016|accessdate=26 August 2018}} 4. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 140 5. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 141 6. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.culturaldiplomacy.org/academy/content/pdf/participant-papers/2013-08-acd/Aysha_Khalid_Mahmood_-_Expressions_of_Arabic_Calligraphy_in_Arabic_Typography_for_a_Cultural_Identity_of_the_Visual_Arabic_Script.pdf|publisher=Cultural Diplomacy|title=Expressions of Arabic Calligraphy in Arabic Typography for a Cultural Identity of the Visual Arabic Script|author=Aysha Khalid Mahmood|page=8|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 7. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 142 8. ^{{cite book|last=McCoy|first=Lisa|title=Qatar (Major Muslim Nations)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMwdBQAAQBAJ|publisher=Mason Crest|year=2014}} 9. ^{{cite web|author=Robert Kluijver|url=http://gulfartguide.com/essay/the-al-thanis-involvement-in-the-arts/|title=The Al Thani’s involvement in the arts|publisher=Gulf Art Guide|accessdate=15 May 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518093205/http://gulfartguide.com/essay/the-al-thanis-involvement-in-the-arts/|archivedate=18 May 2015|df=}} 10. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/jul/13/qatar-world-biggest-art-buyer|title=Qatar becomes world's biggest buyer of contemporary art|publisher=The Guardian|date=13 July 2011|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 11. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/focus/2008/11/20081122145957210396.html|title=Qatar unveils Islamic arts museum|publisher=Al Jazeera|date=23 November 2008|accessdate=28 August 2018}} 12. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6swDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA165&lpg=PA165|title=Art and the Global Economy|publisher=University of California Press|author=John Zarobell|page=165|year=2017}} 13. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/tamim-the-glorious-enthrals-qatar/article19421398.ece|title=‘Tamim the Glorious’ enthrals Qatar|publisher=The Hindu|agency=AFP|date=3 August 2017|accessdate=23 August 2018}} 14. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/Arts/2011/0328/Saving-the-stories|title=Saving the stories|publisher=Christian Science Monitor|author=Amanda Erickson|date=28 March 2011|accessdate=28 August 2018}} 15. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.adab.com/modules.php?name=Sh3er&doWhat=ssd&shid=343|title=نبذة حول الشاعر: قطري بن الفجاءة|publisher=Adab|language=Arabic|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 16. ^{{cite book|authorlink=Allen James Fromherz|author=Allen J. Fromherz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dr8rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|title=Qatar: A Modern History, Updated Edition|publisher=Georgetown University Press|page=49|date=1 June 2017}} 17. ^1 {{cite book|url=https://www.academia.edu/34106946/A_Tale_of_The_Lord_of_the_Sea_in_Qatari_Folklore_and_Tradition|title=Fictional Beings in Middle East Cultures|chapter=A Tale of “The Lord of the Sea” in Qatari Folklore and Tradition|publisher=University of Bucharest's Center for Arab Studies|author=Katarzyna Pechcin|year=2017|accessdate=28 August 2018}} 18. ^1 {{cite web|url=https://journals.openedition.org/tc/1161|title=La légende de May et Ghilân, mythe d’origine de la pêche des perles ?|journal=Techniques & Culture|year=2004|author=Anie Montigny|pages=43–44|language=French|accessdate=21 August 2018}} 19. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://aljasra.org/archive/cms/?p=2727|title=الشعر في قطر علي امتداد مائة سنة|publisher=Al Jasra Cultural and Social Club|author=Hassan Tawfiq|language=Arabic|date=1 May 2015|accessdate=26 August 2018}} 20. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite book|author=Waïl S. Hassan (book editor), Mohammed Mostafa Salem (chapter 22)|title=The Oxford Handbook of Arab Novelistic Traditions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXAuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA384|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=383–393|chapter=22|date=1 August 2017}} 21. ^{{cite book|authors=Rebecca L. Torstrick & Elizabeth Faier|title=Culture and Customs of the Arab Gulf States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jwp6D51NB34C&pg=PA45|publisher=Greenwood|page=49|year=2009|isbn=978-0313336591}} 22. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 158 23. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.pressreader.com/qatar/al-sharq-news/20151014/282716225832524|title=ﻨﻈﻤﻬﺎ إدارة «اﻟﺒﺤﻮث واﻟﺪراﺳﺎت» ﻧﺪوة ﺛﻘﺎﻓﻴﺔ ﺗﻮﺛﻖ ﻟﻠﺴﺮد اﻟﻘﻄﺮي ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ أﻛﺘﻮﺑﺮ|publisher=Al Sharq|website=pressreader.com|language=Arabic|date=14 October 2015|accessdate=23 July 2017}} 24. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 161 25. ^{{cite book|last=Subayyil|first=ʻAbd al-ʻAzīz|title=The Short Story in the Arabian Peninsula: Realistic Trends|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjceAQAAMAAJ|publisher=Indiana University|year=1991|page=28}} 26. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.qf.org.qa/content/the-foundation/issue-53/sharing-the-secrets-of-literary-success|title=Sharing The Secrets Of Literary Success|publisher=Qatar Foundation|date=14 May 2013|accessdate=26 August 2018}} 27. ^1 Abu Saud (1984), p. 152 28. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.adab.com/modules.php?name=Sh3er&doWhat=ssd&shid=343|title=نبذة حول الشاعر: قطري بن الفجاءة|publisher=Adab|language=Arabic|accessdate=25 August 2018}} 29. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 154 30. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 156 31. ^1 Abu Saud (1984), p. 146 32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.qatarembassy.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=61:arts-and-culture&catid=12:tourism-culture-and-leisure&Itemid=4|title=Arts and Culture|publisher=Embassy of Qatar in London|accessdate=26 April 2015}} 33. ^{{cite book|last=Urkevich|first=Lisa|title=Music and Traditions of the Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gy-cBQAAQBAJ|format=Google Play|pages=142–143/689|chapter=5|publisher=Routledge|date=19 December 2014|isbn=978-0415888721}} 34. ^1 Abu Saud (1984), p. 147 35. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.qsa.gov.qa/eng/publication/annabs/2013/Sport%20chapter.xlsx|title=Sports chapter (2013)|publisher=Qatar Statistics Authority|accessdate=15 March 2015}} 36. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://catnaps.org/islamic/society2.html|title=Society 2 of 6|publisher=Catnaps|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 37. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.qatartourism.gov.qa/en/traditional-sports.html|title=Traditional sports|publisher=Qatar Tourism Authority|accessdate=16 December 2015}} 38. ^{{cite web |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002240/224033e.pdf |title=The Camel From Tradition to Modern Times |first1=Marc |last1=Breulmann |first2=Benno |last2=Böer |first3=Ulrich |last3=Wernery |first4=Renate |last4=Wernery |first5=Hassan |last5=El Shaer |first6=Ghaleb |last6=Alhadrami |first7=David |last7=Gallacher |first8=John |last8=Peacock |first9=Shaukat Ali |last9=Chaudhary |first10=Gary |last10=Brown |first11=John |last11=Norton |publisher=UNESCO |accessdate=23 August 2018|lastauthoramp=yes}}{{rp|25}} 39. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.thenational.ae/world/qatar-s-prized-racing-camels-bred-for-success-1.634580|title=Qatar's prized racing camels bred for success|publisher=Agence France-Presse|website=thenational.ae|author=David Harding|date=1 May 2017|accessdate=23 August 2018}} 40. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.marhaba.qa/falconry-a-national-sport/|title=Falconry: A National Sport|publisher=Marhaba|date=20 September 2017|accessdate=23 August 2018}} 41. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/inpictures/2012/01/201212911847243824.html|title=In Pictures: Qatar's hunting games|publisher=Al Jazeera|author=Matthew Cassel|date=29 January 2012|accessdate=26 August 2018}} 42. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.thedailymeal.com/3-m-s-qatari-cuisine|title=The 3 M’s of Qatari Cuisine|publisher=The Daily Meal|date=3 October 2012|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 43. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hilalplaza.com/islamic-culture/Qatar/Qatar_Muslim_culture.html|title=Culture of Qatar|publisher=Hilal Plaza|accessdate=6 May 2015}} 44. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.lifeinqatar.com/en/article/living/culture-and-etiquette-in-qatar.html|title=Culture and Etiquette in Qatar|publisher=Life in Qatar|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 45. ^1 2 {{cite news|title=Organizers are calling this campaign "One of Us" - not "No Nudity"|url=http://dohanews.co/post/24459500266/update-organizers-are-calling-this-campaign-one|accessdate=7 June 2012|newspaper=Doha News}} 46. ^{{cite web|url=https://qatar-weill.cornell.edu/aboutUs/qa/qCulture.html|title=Qatar culture|publisher=Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 47. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 39 48. ^{{cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=79539&page=1#.UbToAflOQto|title=For Qatari Women, Change Slow in Coming|publisher=ABC News|author=Courtney King|date=11 April 2003|accessdate=28 August 2018}} 49. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.hilalplaza.com/islamic-culture/Qatar/Qatar_Muslim_culture.html|title=The Culture of Qatar|publisher=HilalPlaza|accessdate=28 August 2018}} 50. ^{{cite web|url=https://qatar-weill.cornell.edu/aboutUs/qa/qCulture.html|title=Qatar culture|publisher=Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 51. ^Abu Saud (1984), p. 52 52. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.officeholidays.com/countries/qatar/index.php|title=Public Holidays in Qatar in 2015|publisher=Office Holidays|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 53. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/qatar/national-day|title=National Day Observances|publisher=Timeanddate.com|accessdate=15 May 2015}} 54. ^{{cite book|title=The Report: Qatar 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BT1gIeuQq6wC|publisher=Oxford Business Group|year=2010|page=237}} 55. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.irex.org/system/files/MENAMSI09_Qatar.pdf|title=IREX Report 2009|publisher=irex.org|accessdate=20 January 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118181357/http://www.irex.org/system/files/MENAMSI09_Qatar.pdf|archivedate=18 January 2012|df=}} 56. ^{{cite book|title=Qatar Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y0SbBQAAQBAJ|publisher=Int'l Business Publications, USA|year=2012|page=196|isbn=978-0739762141}} 57. ^{{cite web|url=http://tunein.com/radio/QBS-FM-Radio-s209375/|title=QBS FM Radio - Doha|publisher=tunein.com|accessdate=20 January 2015}} 58. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.qmediame.com/English/Media_Center/Radio/Pages/default.aspx|title=Radio|publisher=qmediame.com|accessdate=20 January 2015}} 59. ^{{cite book|last=Kadhim|first=Abbas|title=Governance in the Middle East and North Africa: A Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-etiAFUzJ0C|publisher=Routledge|year=2013|page=273|isbn=978-1857435849}} 60. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.qatarembassy.net/page/information-and-media#11|title=Information and Media|publisher=qatarembassy.net|accessdate=19 January 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095553/http://www.qatarembassy.net/page/information-and-media#11|archivedate=6 October 2014|df=}} 61. ^{{cite book|title=The Report: Qatar 2009|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8uk4ZcbbWmgC|publisher=Oxford Business Group|page=200|year=2009|isbn=978-1902339252}} 62. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-al-jazeera-effect-arab-satellite-television-and-public-opinion |title=The ‘al-Jazeera Effect’: - The Washington Institute for Near East Policy |publisher=Washingtoninstitute.org |date=2000-12-08 |accessdate=2012-10-24}} 2 : Qatari culture|Western Asian culture |
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