“Dutch language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, as in English, begin with three consonants; for example, straat {{IPA|/straːt/}} (street). There are words that end in four consonants, e.g., herfst {{IPA|/ɦɛrfst/}} 'autumn', ergst {{IPA|/ɛrxst/}} 'worst', interessantst 'most interesting', sterkst {{IPA|/stɛrkst/}} 'strongest', the last three of which are superlative adjectives.

The highest number of consonants in a single cluster is found in the word slechtstschrijvend {{IPA|/ˈslɛxtstˌsxrɛi̯vənt/|}} 'writing worst' with 7 consonant phonemes. Similar is angstschreeuw {{Audio-IPA|angstschreeuw.ogg|/ˈɑŋstsxreːu̯/}} "scream in fear", with six in a row.

Polder Dutch

A notable change in pronunciation has been occurring in younger generations in the provinces of Utrecht, North and South Holland, which has been dubbed "Polder Dutch" by Jan Stroop.^[106] These speakers pronounce {{angle bracket|ij/ei}}, {{angle bracket|ou/au}}, and {{angle bracket|ui}}, which used to be pronounced as {{IPA|/ɛi/}}, {{IPA|/ɔu/}}, and {{IPA|/œy/}}, increasingly lowered, as {{IPA|[ai]}}, {{IPA|[au]}}, and {{IPA|[ay]}} respectively. In addition, the same speakers pronounce {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}}, and {{IPA|/øː/}} as the diphthongs {{IPA|[ei]}}, {{IPA|[ou]}}, and {{IPA|[øy]}}^[107] respectively, making this change an example of a chain shift.

This change is interesting from a sociolinguistic point of view because it has apparently happened relatively recently, in the 1970s, and was pioneered by older well-educated women from the upper middle classes.^[108] The lowering of the diphthongs has long been current in many Dutch dialects, and is comparable to the English Great Vowel Shift, and the diphthongisation of long high vowels in Modern High German, which centuries earlier reached the state now found in Polder Dutch. Stroop theorizes that the lowering of open-mid to open diphthongs is a phonetically "natural" and inevitable development and that Dutch, after having diphthongised the long high vowels like German and English, "should" have lowered the diphthongs like German and English as well.

Instead, he argues, this development has been artificially frozen in an "intermediate" state by the standardisation of Dutch pronunciation in the 16th century, where lowered diphthongs found in rural dialects were perceived as ugly by the educated classes and accordingly declared substandard. Now, however, in his opinion, the newly affluent and independent women can afford to let that natural development take place in their speech. Stroop compares the role of Polder Dutch with the urban variety of British English pronunciation called Estuary English.

Among Belgian and Surinamese Dutch speakers and speakers from other regions in the Netherlands, this vowel shift is not taking place.

Grammar

Dutch is grammatically similar to German, such as in syntax and verb morphology (for a comparison of verb morphology in English, Dutch and German, see Germanic weak verb and Germanic strong verb). Grammatical cases have largely fallen out of use and are now mostly limited to pronouns and a large number of set phrases. Inflected forms of the articles are also often found in surnames and toponyms.

Standard Dutch uses three genders to differentiate between natural gender and three when discerning grammatical gender. But for most non-Belgian speakers, the masculine and feminine genders have merged to form the common gender (de), while the neuter (het) remains distinct as before. This gender system is similar to those of most Continental Scandinavian languages. As in English, but to a lesser degree, the inflectional grammar of the language (e.g., adjective and noun endings) has simplified over time.

Verbs and tenses

When grouped according to their conjugational class, Dutch has four main verb types: weak verbs, strong verbs, irregular verbs and mixed verbs.

Weak verbs are the most numerous verbs, constituting about 60% of all verbs. In weak verbs, the past tense and past participle are formed with a dental suffix:

Strong verbs are the second most numerous verb group. This group is characterised by a vowel alternation of the stem in the past tense and perfect participle. Dutch distinguishes between 7 classes of strong verbs with some internal variants. Dutch is known for its large group of 'half strong verbs' these have either a weak past tense and a strong participle or a strong past tense and a weak participle. Finally there are also strong verbs that don't neatly fit in any of the seven classes. The following table shows the vowel alternations in more detail. It also shows the number of roots (bare verbs) that belong to each class, variants with a prefix are excluded.

Genders and cases

Verb class	Verb	Present	Past	Participle	Number of roots
1	kijken	(to watch)	ɛi	kijk	e:	keek	e:	gekeken	58
2a	bieden	(to offer)	i	bied	o:	bood	o:	geboden	17
2b	stuiven	(to gush)	œy	stuif	o:	stoof	o:	gestoven	23
3a	klimmen	(to climb)	ɪ	klim	ɔ	klom	ɔ	geklommen	25
3b	zenden	(to send)	ɛ	zend	ɔ	zond	ɔ	gezonden	18
3 + 7	sterven	(to die)	ɛ	sterf	i	stierf	ɔ	gestorven	6
4	breken	(to break)	e:	breek	ɑ ~ a:	brak ~ braken	o:	gebroken	7
4 irregular	wegen	(to weigh)	e:	weeg	o:	woog	o:	gewogen	3
5	geven	(to give)	e:	geef	ɑ ~ a:	gaf ~ gaven	e:	gegeven	10
5 irregular	zitten	(to sit)	ɪ	zit	ɑ ~ a:	zat ~ zaten	e:	gezeten	3
6	dragen	(to carry)	a:	draag	u	droeg	a:	gedragen	4
7	roepen	(to call)	X	roep	i	riep	X	geroepen	8
7 irregular	vangen	(to catch)	X	vang	ɪ	ving	X	gevangen	3
Half strong past	vragen	(to ask)	vraag	vroeg	gevraagd	3
Half strong perfect	bakken	(to bake)	bak	bakte	gebakken	19
Other	scheppen	(to create)	schep	schiep	geschapen	5

As in English, the case system of Dutch and the subjunctive have largely fallen out of use, and the system has generalised the dative over the accusative case for certain pronouns (NL: me, je; EN: me, you; LI: mi, di vs. DE: mich/mir, dich/dir). While standard Dutch has three grammatical genders, this has few grammatical consequences and the masculine and feminine gender are often merged into a common gender in the Netherlands but not in Belgium (EN: none; NL/LI: common and neuter; in Belgium masculine, feminine and neuter is in use).

Modern Dutch has mostly lost its case system.^[109] However, certain idioms and expressions continue to include now archaic case declensions. The article has just two forms, de and het, more complex than English, which has only the. The use of the older inflected form den in the dative or accusative, as well as use of der in the dative, is restricted to numerous set phrases, surnames and toponyms.

Masculine singular	Feminine singular	Neuter singular	Plural (any gender)
Nominative	de	de	het	de
Genitive	van de / des	van de / der	van het / des	van de / der
Dative	(aan / voor) de	(aan / voor) de	(aan / voor) het	(aan / voor) de
Accusative	de	de	het	de

In modern Dutch, the genitive articles des and der are commonly used in idioms. Other usage is typically considered archaic, poetic or stylistic. In most circumstances, the preposition van is instead used, followed by the normal definitive article de or het. For the idiomatic use of the articles in the genitive, see for example:

In contemporary usage, the genitive case still occurs a little more often with plurals than with singulars, as the plural article is der for all genders and no special noun inflection must be taken account of. Der is commonly used in order to avoid reduplication of van, e.g. het merendeel der gedichten van de auteur instead of het merendeel van de gedichten van de auteur ("the bulk of the author's poems").

There is also a genitive form for the pronoun die/dat ("that [one], those [ones]"), namely diens for masculine and neuter singulars (occurrences of dier for feminine singular and all plurals are extremely rare). Although usually avoided in common speech, this form can be used instead of possessive pronouns to avoid confusion. Compare:

Analogically, the relative and interrogative pronoun wie ("who") has the genitive forms wiens and wier (corresponding to English whose, but less frequent in use).

Dutch also has a range of fixed expressions that make use of the genitive articles, which can be abbreviated using apostrophes. Common examples include "'s ochtends" (with 's as abbreviation of des; "in the morning") and desnoods (lit: "of the need", translated: "if necessary").

The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the past 100 years: cases are now mainly used for the pronouns, such as ik (I), mij, me (me), mijn (my), wie (who), wiens (whose: masculine or neuter singular), wier (whose: feminine singular; masculine, feminine or neuter plural). Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected (except for the genitive of proper nouns (names): -s, -'s or -'). In the spoken language cases and case inflections had already gradually disappeared from a much earlier date on (probably the 15th century) as in many continental West Germanic dialects.

Inflection of adjectives is more complicated. The adjective receives no ending with indefinite neuter nouns in singular (as with een {{IPA|/ən/}} 'a/an'), and -e in all other cases. (This was also the case in Middle English, as in "a goode man".) Note that fiets belongs to the masculine/feminine category, and that water and huis are neuter.

Masculine singular or feminine singular	Neuter singular	Plural (any gender)
Definite (with definite article or pronoun)	de mooie fiets ("the beautiful bicycle")	het mooie huis ("the beautiful house")	de mooie fietsen ("the beautiful bicycles") de mooie huizen ("the beautiful houses")
Indefinite (with indefinite article or no article and no pronoun)	een mooie fiets ("a beautiful bicycle") koude soep ("cold soup")	een mooi huis ("a beautiful house") koud water ("cold water")	mooie fietsen ("beautiful bicycles") mooie huizen ("beautiful houses")

More complex inflection is still found in certain lexicalized expressions like de heer des huizes (literally, "the man of the house"), etc. These are usually remnants of cases (in this instance, the genitive case which is still used in German, cf. Der Herr des Hauses) and other inflections no longer in general use today. In such lexicalized expressions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found too, e.g. in het jaar des Heren (Anno Domini), where -en is actually the genitive ending of the weak noun. Also in this case, German retains this feature.

Word order

Dutch shares much of its word order with German. Dutch exhibits subject–object–verb word order, but in main clauses the conjugated verb is moved into the second position in what is known as verb second or V2 word order. This makes Dutch word order almost identical to that of German, but often different from English, which has subject–verb–object word order and has since lost the V2 word order that existed in Old English.^[110]

An example sentence used in some Dutch language courses and textbooks is "Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is", which translates into English word for word as "I can my pen not find because it far too dark is", but in standard English word order would be written "I cannot find my pen because it is far too dark". If the sentence is split into a main and subclause and the verbs highlighted, the logic behind the word order can be seen.

Verbs are placed in the final position, but the conjugated verb, in this case "kan" (can), is made the second element of the clause.

In an interrogative main clause the usual word order is: conjugated verb followed by subject; other verbs in final position:

In the Dutch equivalent of a wh-question the word order is: interrogative pronoun (or expression) + conjugated verb + subject; other verbs in final position:

Diminutives

In Dutch, the diminutive is used extensively. The nuances of meaning expressed by the diminutive are a distinctive aspect of Dutch, and can be difficult for non-native speakers to master. It is very productive^[111]{{rp|61}} and formed by adding one of the suffixes to the noun in question, depending on the latter's phonological ending:

The diminutive suffixes -ke (from which -{{Not a typo|tje}} has derived by palatalization), -eke, -ske, -{{Not a typo|ie}} (only for words ending -ch, -k, -p, or -s), -kie (instead of -kje), and -pie (instead of -pje) are used in southern dialects, and the forms ending on -{{not a typo|ie}} as well in northern urban dialects. Some of these form part of expressions that became standard language, like een makkie, from gemak = ease). The noun joch (young boy) has, exceptionally, only the diminutive form jochie, also in standard Dutch. The form -ke is also found in many women's given names: Janneke, Marieke, Marijke, Mieke, Meike etc.

In Dutch, the diminutive is not merely restricted to nouns, but can be applied to numerals (met z'n tweetjes, "the two of us"), pronouns (onderonsje, "tête-à-tête"), verbal particles (moetje, "shotgun marriage"), and even prepositions (toetje, "dessert").^[111]{{rp|64–65}} Most notable however, are the diminutive forms of adjectives and adverbs. The former take a diminutive ending and thus function as nouns, the latter remain adverbs and always have the diminutive with the -s appended, e.g. adjective: groen ("green") → noun: groen{{Not a typo|tje}} ("rookie"); adverb: even ("just") → adverb: eventjes ("just a minute").

Some nouns have two different diminutives, each with a different meaning: bloem (flower) → bloempje (lit. "small flower"), but bloemetje (lit. also "small flower", meaning bouquet). A few nouns exist solely in a diminutive form, e.g. zeepaardje (seahorse), while many, e.g. meisje (girl), originally a diminutive of meid (maid), have acquired a meaning independent of their non-diminutive forms. A diminutive can sometimes be added to an uncountable noun to refer to a single portion: ijs (ice, ice cream) → ijsje (ice cream treat, cone of ice cream), bier (beer) → biertje. Some diminutive forms only exist in the plural, e.g. kleertjes (clothing).

When used to refer to time, the Dutch diminutive form can indicate whether the person in question found it pleasant or not: een uurtje kletsen (chatting for a "little" hour.) The diminutive can, however, also be used pejoratively: Hij was weer eens het "mannetje". (He acted as if he was the "little" man.)

Pronouns and determiners

There are two series of personal pronouns, subject and objects pronouns. The forms on the right-hand sides within each column are the unemphatic forms; those not normally written are given in brackets. Only ons and u do not have an unemphatic form. The distinction between emphatic and unemphatic pronouns is very important in Dutch.^[111]{{rp|67}} Emphatic pronouns in English use the reflexive pronoun form, but are used to emphasize the subject, not to indicate a direct or indirect object. For example, "I gave (to) myself the money" is reflexive but "I myself gave the money (to someone else) " is emphatic.

person	subject	object
1st person singular	ik – ('k)	mij – me
2nd person singular, informal	jij – je	jou – je
2nd person singular, formal	u	u
3rd person singular, masculine	-ie}})	hem – ('m)
3rd person singular, feminine	zij – ze	haar – ('r, d'r)
3rd person singular, neuter	het – ('t)	het – ('t)

1st person plural	wij – we	ons
2nd person plural, informal	jullie – je	jullie – je
2nd person plural, formal	u	u
3rd person plural, for a person	zij – ze	hun, hen – ze
3rd person plural, for an object	zij – ze	die – ze

Like in English, Dutch has generalised the dative over the accusative case for all pronouns, e.g. Du me, je, Eng me, you, vs. Germ mich/mir dich/dir. There is one exception: the standard language prescribes that in the third person plural, hen is to be used for the direct object, and hun for the indirect object. This distinction was artificially introduced in the 17th century by grammarians, and is largely ignored in spoken language and not well understood by Dutch speakers. Consequently, the third person plural forms hun and hen are interchangeable in normal usage, with hun being more common. The shared unstressed form ze is also often used as both direct and indirect objects and is a useful avoidance strategy when people are unsure which form to use.^[112]

Dutch shares also with English the presence of h- pronouns, e.g. Du hij, hem, haar, hen, hun and Eng he, him, her vs. Germ er, ihn, ihr, ihnen.

Compounds

Like most Germanic languages, Dutch forms noun compounds, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second (hondenhok = doghouse). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in open form with separating spaces, Dutch (like the other Germanic languages) either uses the closed form without spaces (boomhut = tree house) or inserts a hyphen (VVD-coryfee = outstanding member of the VVD, a political party). Like German, Dutch allows arbitrarily long compounds, but the longer they get, the less frequent they tend to be.

The longest serious entry in the Van Dale dictionary is {{Audio|Nl-BE-Wapenstilstandsonderhandeling.oga|wapenstilstandsonderhandeling}} (ceasefire negotiation). Leafing through the articles of association (Statuten) one may come across a 30-letter {{Audio|Nl-BE-Vertegenwoordigingsbevoegdheid.oga|vertegenwoordigingsbevoegdheid}} (authorisation of representation). An even longer word cropping up in official documents is ziektekostenverzekeringsmaatschappij (health insurance company) though the shorter ziekteverzekeraar (health insurer) is more common.

Notwithstanding official spelling rules, some Dutch-speaking people, like some Scandinavians and German speakers, nowadays tend to write the parts of a compound separately, a practice sometimes dubbed de Engelse ziekte (the English disease).^[113]

Vocabulary

Dutch vocabulary is predominantly Germanic in origin, with loanwords accounting for 20%.^[114] The main foreign influence on Dutch vocabulary since the 12th century and culminating in the French period has been French and (northern) Oïl languages, accounting for an estimated 6.8% of all words, or more than a third of all loanwords. Latin, which was spoken in the southern Low Countries for centuries, and subsequently played a major role as the language of science and religion, follows with 6.1%. High German and Low German were influential until the mid-19th century and account for 2.7%, but these are mostly unrecognizable since many have been "Dutchified", e.g. German {{lang|de|Fremdling}} → Dutch {{lang|nl|vreemdeling}}. From English Dutch has borrowed words since the middle of the 19th century, as a consequence of the increasing power and influence of Britain and the United States. The share of English loanwords is about 1.5%, but this number is still on the increase.^[115] Many English loans become less visible over time as they are either gradually replaced by calques (e.g., English loan skyscraper became Dutch wolkenkrabber) or neologisms (e.g., English loan bucket list became Dutch loodjeslijst). Conversely, Dutch contributed many loanwords to English, accounting for 1.3% of its lexicon.^[116]

The main Dutch dictionary is the Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal, which contains some 268,826 headwords.^[117] In the field of linguistics, the 45,000-page Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is also widely used. This scholarly endeavor took 147 years to complete and contains all recorded Dutch words from the Early Middle Ages onward.

Spelling and writing system

The official spelling is set by the Wet schrijfwijze Nederlandsche taal (Law on the writing of the Dutch language; Belgium 1946, Netherlands 1947; based on a 1944 spelling revision; both amended in the 1990s after a 1995 spelling revision). The Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal, more commonly known as "het groene boekje" (i.e. "the green booklet", because of its color), is usually accepted as an informal explanation of the law.

Dutch is written using the Latin script. Dutch uses one additional character beyond the standard alphabet, the digraph IJ. It has a relatively high proportion of doubled letters, both vowels and consonants, due to the formation of compound words and also to the spelling devices for distinguishing the many vowel sounds in the Dutch language. An example of five consecutive doubled letters is the word voorraaddoos (food storage container). The diaeresis (Dutch: trema) is used to mark vowels that are pronounced separately when involving a pre- or suffix, and a hyphen is used when the problem occurs in compound words. For example; "beïnvloed" (influenced), but zee-eend (sea duck). Generally, other diacritical marks occur only in loanwords. However, the acute accent can also be used for emphasis or to differentiate between two forms, and its most common use is to differentiate between the indefinite article 'een' (a, an) and the numeral 'één' (one).

See also

Notes

1. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/modern-languages/lal/languages%20at%20lal/dutch |title=Dutch |publisher =University of Leicester |website = Languages at Leicester |accessdate=}}
2. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/erkende-talen/vraag-en-antwoord/erkende-talen-nederland |title=Welke erkende talen heeft Nederland? |publisher=Rijksoverheid |accessdate=27 December 2017 |language=Dutch}}
3. ^¹²{{cite web |title=Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey) |publisher=Europa |author=European Commission |year=2006 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=February 3, 2007}} "1% of the EU population claims to speak Dutch well enough in order to have a conversation." (page 153).
4. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1498651/Netherlandic-language |title=Netherlandic language – Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=June 11, 2014}}
5. ^{{cite book |last= Willemyns |first= Roland |chapter=Language Contact at the Romance-Germanic Language Border |pages=4|editor=Jeanine Treffers-Daller, Roland Willemyns |title=Journal of multilingual and multicultural development |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=2002|isbn=1853596272}}
6. ^In France, a historical dialect called French Flemish is spoken. There are about 80,000 Dutch speakers in France; see {{harvnb|Simpson|2009|p=307}}. In French Flanders, only a remnant of 20,000 Flemish-speakers remain; see {{harvnb|Berdichevsky|2004|p=90}}. French Flemish is spoken in the north-west of France by an estimated population of 20,000 daily speakers and 40,000 occasional speakers; see {{harvnb|European Commission|2010}}.
A dialect continuum exists between Dutch and German through the South Guelderish and Limburgish dialects.
In 1941, 400,000 Indonesians spoke Dutch, and Dutch exerted a major influence on Indonesian; see {{harvnb|Sneddon|2003|p=161}}. In 1941, about 0.5% of the inland population had a reasonable knowledge of Dutch; see {{harvnb|Maier|2005|p=12}}. At the beginning of World War II, about one million Asians had an active command of Dutch, while an additional half million had a passive knowledge; see {{harvnb|Jones|2008|p=xxxi}}. Many older Indonesians speak Dutch as a second language; see {{harvnb|Thomson|2003|p=80}}. Some of the ethnic Chinese in Indonesia speak Dutch amongst each other; see {{harvnb|Tan|2008|pp=62–64}}, {{harvnb|Erdentuğ|Colombijn|2002|p=104}}. Dutch is spoken by "smaller groups of speakers" in Indonesia; see {{harvnb|Bussmann|2002|p=83}}. Some younger Indonesians learn Dutch as a foreign language because their parents and grandparents may speak it and because in some circles, Dutch is regarded as the language of the elite; see {{harvnb|Vos|2001|p=91}}. At present, only educated people of the oldest generation, in addition to specialists who require knowledge of the language, can speak Dutch fluently; see {{harvnb|Ammon|2006|p=2017}}. Around 25% of present-day Indonesian vocabulary can be traced back to Dutch words, see {{harvnb|Maier|2005|p=17}}.
7. ^Afrikaans is a daughter language of Dutch; see {{harvnb|Booij|1999|p=2}}, {{harvnb|Jansen|Schreuder|Neijt|2007|p=5}}, {{harvnb|Mennen|Levelt|Gerrits|2006|p=1}}, {{harvnb|Booij|2003|p=4}}, {{harvnb|Hiskens|Auer|Kerswill|2005|p=19}}, {{harvnb|Heeringa|de Wet|2007|pp=1, 3, 5}}.
Afrikaans was historically called Cape Dutch; see {{harvnb|Deumert|Vandenbussche|2003|p=16}}, {{harvnb|Conradie|2005|p=208}}, {{harvnb|Sebba|1997|p=160}}, {{harvnb|Langer|Davies|2005|p=144}}, {{harvnb|Deumert|2002|p=3}}, {{harvnb|Berdichevsky|2004|p=130}}.
Afrikaans is rooted in 17th century dialects of Dutch; see {{harvnb|Holm|1989|p=338}}, {{harvnb|Geerts|Clyne|1992|p=71}}, {{harvnb|Mesthrie|1995|p=214}}, {{harvnb|Niesler|Louw|Roux|2005|p=459}}.
Afrikaans is variously described as a creole, a partially creolised language, or a deviant variety of Dutch; see {{harvnb|Sebba|2007|p=116}}.
8. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/other/dutch/guide/facts.shtml |title=A Guide to Dutch – 10 facts about the Dutch language |publisher=BBC|website = Languages|date = 2014 }}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055348/Netherlandic-language|title=Dutch language|publisher=}}
10. ^see also {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Haeringen|first=Coenraad van|title=Netherlancis Language Research Men and Works in the Study of Dutch|publisher=Brill}}
11. ^Georges De Schutter, "Dutch", The Germanic Languages, eds. Ekkehard König and Johan van der Auwera (London: Routledge, 1994), 439.
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=MNW&id=06628|title=Old Dutch Dictionary|publisher=}}
13. ^Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd revised edn., s.v. "Dutch" (Random House Reference, 2005).
14. ^{{Cite book|title=Dutch: Biography of a Language |publisher=Oxford University Press |author=Roland Willemyns |page=5 |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=JBu9lOijWYcC&lpg=PP1&hl=nl&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
15. ^{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=Fh7vQT-lkTkC&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Walahfrid Strabo's Libellus De Exordiis Et Incrementis Quarundam in Observationibus Ecclesiasticis Rerum: A Translation and Liturgical Commentary|last=Strabo|first=Walafridus|date=January 1, 1996|publisher=BRILL|year=|isbn=9004096698|location=|pages=223|language=en}}
16. ^¹{{Cite web|url=http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_ver025190901_01/_ver025190901_01_0030.php|title=Verslagen en mededelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Taal- en Letterkunde 1909 · dbnl|last=DBNL|website=DBNL|language=nl|access-date=April 25, 2017}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055348/Netherlandic-language|title=Dutch language|publisher=}}
18. ^see also {{cite book|ref=harv|last=Haeringen|first=Coenraad van|title=Netherlandic Language Research: Men and Works in the Study of Dutch|publisher=Brill}}
19. ^{{nl icon}} See J. Verdam, Middelnederlandsch handwoordenboek (The Hague 1932 (reprinted 1994)): "Nederlant, znw. o. I) Laag of aan zee gelegen land. 2) land aan den Nederrijn; Nedersaksen, -duitschland."
20. ^{{cite web|url=http://users.pandora.be/michel.vanhalme/hermes29.htm|title=Hermes in uitbreiding|publisher=Users.pandora.be|accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
21. ^{{nl icon}} neder- corresponds with the English nether-, which means "low" or "down". See Online etymological dictionary. Entry: Nether.
22. ^{{cite book|last1=Willemyns|first1=Roland|title=Dutch : biography of a language |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0199858713|pages=xiii}}
23. ^http://www.statenvertaling.net/bijbel/psal/55.html Psalm 55:19
24. ^http://bible.cc/psalms/55-18.htm Psalm 55:18
25. ^{{cite encyclopedia |year=1993 |title=Languages of the World: Germanic languages | encyclopedia=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |location=Chicago, IL, United States |isbn=0-85229-571-5}} This long-standing, well-known article on the languages can be found in almost any edition of Britannica.
26. ^{{cite book|last=Hawkins|first=John A.|chapter=Germanic languages|pages=68–76|editor=Bernard Comrie|title=The World's Major Languages|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1987|isbn=0-19-520521-9}}
27. ^{{cite book|last=Robinson|first=Orrin W.|title=Old English and Its Closest Relatives|isbn=0-8047-2221-8|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1992}}
28. ^{{cite book |title=Dutch: Biography of a Language |first=Roland |last=Willemyns |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-932366-1 |pages=40–41}}
29. ^{{cite book|title=Icons of the Middle Ages : rulers, writers, rebels, and saints|last1=editor|first1=Lister M. Matheson|date=2012|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=0313340803|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|pages=145}}
30. ^Webster's New World Dictionary: Old Dutch
31. ^{{cite book|last1=Besamusca|first1=Emmeline|last2=Verheul|first2=Jaap|title=Discovering the Dutch: on culture and society of the Netherlands|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=9789048526093|pages=239|url=https://books.google.nl/books?id=GiJyBQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=nl#v=onepage&q&f=false|language=en}}
32. ^Full English transcript: BIBLE, that is: The entire H. Scripture, containing all the Canonical Books of the Old and the New TESTAMENTS. Now first, by order of the High LORDS STATES GENERAL of the United Netherlands, and according to the Decision of the National Synod, held at Dordrecht, in the Years 1618 and 1619. From the Original languages into our Dutch language faithfully translated. With new added Clarifications of the dark passages, notes of the paralleled Texts, and new Indexes of both TESTAMENTS.
33. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ccjk.com/dutch-full-historical-junk/ |title=Dutch & Other Languages |publisher=Ccjk.com |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
34. ^{{cite web |url=http://taal.phileon.nl/brabants.php |title=Taal in Nederland .:. Brabants |publisher=Taal.phileon.nl |accessdate=June 11, 2014}}
35. ^{{cite book|last1=McRae|first1=Kenneth D.|title=Conflict and compromise in multilingual societies|date=1984|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press|location=Waterloo, ON|isbn=0889201951|pages=54–55}}
36. ^{{cite book|last1=Bramlett|first1=Edited by Frank|title=Linguistics and the Study of Comics|date=2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|location=Basingstoke|isbn=113700410X|pages=163|edition=1. publ.}}
37. ^Friedrich Maurer uses the term Istvaeonic instead of Franconian; see Friedrich Maurer (1942), Nordgermanen und Alemannen: Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde, Bern: Verlag Francke.
38. ^{{ELL2|Belgium}}
39. ^Belgium FOD economy Statbel official demographic statistics
40. ^Netherlands gouvernement CBS official demographic statistics
41. ^{{cite book |first=Roland |last= Willemyns |title=Dutch: Biography of a Language| year=2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=0199858713}}, p.10.
42. ^{{aut|Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, Marjatta Palander, Esa Penttilä}} (2005): Dialects Across Borders: Selected papers from the 11th International Conference on Methods in Dialectology (Methods XI), John Benjamins Publishing, {{ISBN|9027294046}}, 9789027294043, p. 21
43. ^{{aut|Folkert de Vriend, Charlotte Giesbers, Roeland van Hout & Louis ten Bosch}} (2009): The Dutch–German dialect border: relating linguistic, geographic and perceptual distances, in: the International Journal of Humanities and Arts Computing, Special Issue on Language Variation
44. ^{{cite book|last1=PhD|first1=William F. Katz,|title=Phonetics for dummies|date=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons Inc|location=Hoboken, N.J.|isbn=1118505085|pages=238}}
45. ^{{cite web|title=Netherlands Statistics population counter|url=https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/visualisaties/population-counter|website=www.cbs.nl|accessdate=May 6, 2017}}
46. ^¹{{cite web|title=Europeans and their Languages|url=http://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf|website=ec.europa.eu|publisher=European Union|accessdate=May 6, 2017}}
47. ^{{cite web|title=Current population of Belgium|url=http://countrymeters.info/en/Belgium#population_2017|website=countrymeters.info|accessdate=May 6, 2017|language=en}}
48. ^{{cite web|title=Website Dutch Language Union|url=http://taalunieversum.org/inhoud/feiten-en-cijfers#zeslanden|website=taalunieversum.org|language=nl}}
49. ^ {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206044736/http://www.mre.gov.br/Portuguese/imprensa/nota_detalhe3.asp?ID_RELEASE=5466|date=December 6, 2008}}
50. ^¹²{{cite web|language=nl|url=http://taalunieversum.org/onderwijs/vragen/antwoord/37/|title= Hoeveel studenten studeren er jaarlijks Nederlands aan universiteiten buiten het taalgebied?|publisher= Nederlandse Taalunie|date=2012}}
51. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://taalunieversum.org/taalpeil/2005/hoe_trots_zijn_wij_op_het_nederlands.html |title=Hoe trots zijn wij op het Nederlands? |publisher=Taalunieversum.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
52. ^M. van der Wal, Geschiedenis van het Nederlands, 1992. {{ISBN|90-274-1839-X}}
53. ^B. van den Berg, Morfologische Atlas van de Nederlandse Dialecten, 2008. {{ISBN|9053567747}}
54. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/023/0022/jmmd0230022.pdf |format=PDF |title=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |publisher=Multilingual-matters.net |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
55. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/neerlandes/an/i1/i1.html |title=Flemish in France |publisher=Uoc.edu |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
56. ^¹²{{cite web |url=http://taalunieversum.org/taalpeil/2005/nederlands_studeren_wereldwijd.html |title=Nederlands studeren wereldwijd |publisher=Taalunieversum.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
57. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://neerlandistiek.taalunieversum.org/ |title=Neerlandistiek wereldwijd |publisher=Neerlandistiek.taalunieversum.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
58. ^Baker (1998), p.202.
59. ^Ammon (2005), p.2017.
60. ^Booij (1999), p.2
61. ^{{cite web|url=http://taalunieversum.org/en/dutch_worldwide/ |title=Dutch worldwide |publisher=Taalunieversum |date=December 20, 2012 |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
62. ^{{cite web |url=http://taalunieversum.org/taalunie/waar_ben_je_nou_nederlands_leren_in_indonesie/ |title=Taalunie | Beleidsorganisatie voor het Nederlands |publisher=Taalunieversum.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
63. ^{{cite web|url=http://taalunieversum.org/taalunie/indonesie/ |title=Taalunie | Beleidsorganisatie voor het Nederlands |publisher=Taalunieversum.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
64. ^{{Cite book |title=Language, identity, and marginality in Indonesia: the changing nature of ritual speech on the Island of Sumba |publisher=Cambridge University Press |author=Joel Corneal Kuipers |page=9 |year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-q6gqIOQNAC |accessdate=June 29, 2010}}
65. ^¹²{{cite web|url=http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/971136.pdf |title=Westerse koloniale taalpolitiek in Azië: het Nederlands, Portugees, Spaans, Engels en Frans in vergelijkend perspectief |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=October 1, 2013 |accessdate=August 12, 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325104245/http://www.knaw.nl/publicaties/pdf/971136.pdf |archivedate=March 25, 2009 }}
66. ^Sneddon (2003), p.162.
67. ^{{cite web |url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/ies/050208/ |title=A Hidden Language – Dutch in Indonesia |author=Hendrik M. Maier |date=February 8, 2005 |work=Institute of European Studies |publisher= University of California |location=Berkeley}}
68. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,827197-1,00.html |title=Indonesia: Fight over the Papuans |publisher=TIME |date=December 29, 1961 |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
69. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation//download?format=xls&collection=Census&period=2006&productlabel=Language%20Spoken%20at%20Home%20by%20Sex&producttype=Census%20Tables&method=Place%20of%20Usual%20Residence&areacode=0 |title=Census Home |publisher=Censusdata.abs.gov.au |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
70. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.stats.co.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.xls |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517194534/http://www.stats.co.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.xls |dead-url=yes |archive-date=May 17, 2016 |title= 2006 Census Data – QuickStats About Culture and Identity – Tables |publisher=Statistics New Zealand |accessdate=August 14, 2011}}
71. ^ {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828214003/http://taalunieversum.org/taalunie/toelichting_bij_de_overeenkomsttekst/|date=August 28, 2008}}
72. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ns.html#People |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Suriname |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
73. ^¹²{{cite web|url=http://taalunieversum.org/taalpeil/2005/het_nederlandse_taalgebied.html |title=Het Nederlandse taalgebied |accessdate=November 4, 2008 |publisher=Nederlandse Taalunie |year=2005 |language=nl}}
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75. ^Source: Zevende algemene volks- en woningtelling 2004, Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek
76. ^{{cite web|url=http://taalunieversum.org/en/about_us/ |title=About us |publisher=Taalunieversum.org |date=January 26, 2010 |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
77. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=srn |title=Ethnologue on Sranan |publisher=Ethnologue.com |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
78. ^Recognition of Surinamese-Dutch (Surinaams-Nederlands) as an equal natiolect was expressed in 1976 by the publication of the Woordenboek van het Surinaams-Nederlands – een geannoteerde lijst van Surinaams-Nederlandse woorden en uitdrukkingen (Dictionary of Surinam Dutch – an annotated list of Surinam-Dutch words and expressions), see Johannes van Donselaar Woordenboek van het Surinaams-Nederlands – een geannoteerde lijst van Surinaams-Nederlandse woorden en uitdrukkingen, Utrecht : Instituut A. W. de Groot voor Algemene Taalwetenschap van de Rijksuniversiteit te Utrecht (1976), Amsterdam, E.T.Rap (1977) {{ISBN|90-6005-125-4}}, published in 1989 as the Woordenboek van het Surinaams-Nederlands (Dictionary of Surinam Dutch), by Van Donselaar, and later by the publication of the Woordenboek Surinaams Nederlands (Dictionary Surinam Dutch) in 2009 (editor Renata de Bies, in cooperation with lexicologists Willy Martin en Willy Smedts), which was previously published as the Woordenboek van de Surinaamse Bijdrage aan het Nederlands (Dictionary of the Surinam Contribution to Dutch").
79. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/aa.html#People |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Aruba |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
80. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bartleby.com/185/a12.html |title=Jersey Dutch |publisher=Bartleby.com |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
81. ^{{cite web|url=http://german.about.com/library/blgermyth07.htm |title=German Myth 7 – Pennsylvania Dutch or German? |publisher=German.about.com |date=April 10, 2012 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
82. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.mla.org/map_data_results&mode=lang_tops&SRVY_YEAR=2000&lang_id=610 |title=Dutch |publisher=Mla.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
83. ^{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89189&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=705&Temporal=2006&Theme=70&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928 |title=Statistics Canada 2006 (Dutch and Flemish grouped together) |publisher=2.statcan.ca |date=July 4, 2011 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
84. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/081202/dq081202a-eng.htm |title=Agriculture-population linkage data for the 2006 Census. The Daily |publisher=Statcan.gc.ca |date=December 2, 2008 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
85. ^Statistics Canada, 2006 Census Profile of Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order): Language, Mobility and Migration and Immigration and Citizenship. Ottawa, 2007, pp. 6–10.
86. ^¹²{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ciimg5gGqQC&pg=PA1&lpg=PA1&dq=Afrikaans+%22lingua+franca+in+Namibia%22&source=web&ots=gaUpvrVcEm&sig=YaGtetmel-PqXQU2U4FLZJr0FFA&hl=nl&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=3&ct=result#PPA25,M1 |title=Language Standardization and Language Change: The Dynamics of Cape Dutch |accessdate=November 10, 2008 |work=Ana Deumert |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=2004}}
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89. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/south_africa/01_laws.php |title=South Africa: Legislation: 1910–2015 |publisher=Archontology.org |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
90. ^ {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816125902/http://www.supremecourtofappeal.gov.za/speeches/mpati.pdf|date=August 16, 2007}}
91. ^{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIivedw-oZYC&pg=PP1&dq=Language+and+Social+History:+Studies+in+South+African+Sociolinguistics&hl=nl#PPA214,M1 |title=Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics (page 214) |work=Rajend Mesthrie |publisher=New Africa Books |accessdate=November 3, 2008 |year=1995}}
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93. ^{{cite web |url=http://llc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/21/4/543 |title=Oxford Journal on Mutual Comprehensibility of Written Afrikaans and Dutch |publisher=Llc.oxfordjournals.org |date=August 27, 2006 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
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95. ^¹Key results of the 2011 census{{dead link|date=December 2016|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Statistics South Africa
96. ^Primary tables: 1996 and 2001 compared {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130140908/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/RSAPrimary.pdf |date=November 30, 2006 }}, Statistics South Africa
97. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.up.ac.za/academic/libarts/crpl/language-dev-in-SA.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20031209231442/http://www.up.ac.za/academic/libarts/crpl/language-dev-in-SA.pdf |archivedate=December 9, 2003 |title=LANGUAGE POLICY DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA |accessdate=September 21, 2016}}
98. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/wa.html#People |title=The World Factbook (CIA) — Namibia |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
99. ^{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ghqf-m6ILIgC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=Afrikaans+%22lingua+franca+in+Namibia%22&source=bl&ots=yWIieizvlA&sig=r7zYQXgnXmjWfO8a5KGEBGryrS4&hl=nl&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPA26,M1 |title=Language Attitudes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Sociolinguistic Overview (page 26) |accessdate=November 10, 2008 |work=Efurosibina E. Adegbija |publisher=Multilingual Matters |year=1994}}
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101. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=afr |title=Ethnologue on Afrikaans |publisher=Ethnologue.com |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
102. ^{{fr}}«Pasopo» disent les «ketjes» de Lubumbashi – Le Soir, September 28, 1999
103. ^Frans Hinskens, Johan Taeldeman, [https://books.google.co.id/books?id=t8jmBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA106&dq=frisian%20substrate%20dutch&hl=nl&pg=PA66#v=snippet&q Language and space: Dutch], Walter de Gruyter 2014. 3110261332, 9783110261332, p.66
104. ^¹{{Harvcoltxt|Verhoeven|2005|p=245}}
105. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.tussentaalenbeeld.nl/A60bb.htm|title=Onderzoek naar de volkstaal in de Jordaan|website=www.tussentaalenbeeld.nl}}
106. ^{{cite web |url=http://cf.hum.uva.nl/poldernederlands/english/stjohnspaper_engels.htm |author=Stroop, Jan |title=Young Women's Farewell to Standard Dutch |date=October 1999 |work=Poldernederlands |accessdate=January 2, 2010}}
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109. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.zeergoeddutch.com/cases/en |title=Grammatical Cases in Dutch |publisher=Zeer Goed Dutch |accessdate=August 12, 2015}}
110. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kroch/omev2-html/omev2-html.html |title=Verb Movement in Old and Middle English: Dialect Variation and Language Contact |publisher=Ling.upenn.edu |date=January 20, 1995 |accessdate=August 19, 2012}}
111. ^¹²{{cite book|first=Bruce|last=Donaldson|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=aFN9AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&hl=nl&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar|publisher=Routledge|year=2008|ISBN=9781134082360}}
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115. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=HnKeVbwTwyYC&lpg=PP1&hl=en |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook |page=[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=HnKeVbwTwyYC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PA352#v=onepage&q&f=false 352] |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2009}}
116. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.id/books?id=HnKeVbwTwyYC&lpg=PP1&hl=en |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook |page=[https://books.google.co.id/books?id=HnKeVbwTwyYC&lpg=PP1&hl=en&pg=PA370#v=onepage&q&f=false 370] |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2009}}
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References

Bibliography

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