“Earth in culture”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The cultural perspective on Earth, or the world, varies by society and time period.^[1] Religious beliefs often include a creation belief as well as personification in the form of a deity. The exploration of the world has modified many of the perceptions of the planet, resulting in a viewpoint of a globally integrated ecosystem. Unlike the remainder of the planets in the Solar System, mankind didn't perceive the Earth as a planet until the sixteenth century.^[2]

Etymology

Unlike the other planets in the Solar System, in English, Earth does not directly share a name with an ancient Roman deity.^[3] The name Earth derives from the eighth century Anglo-Saxon word erda, which means ground or soil. It became eorthe later, and then erthe in Middle English.^[4] These words are all cognates of Jörð, the name of the giantess of Norse myth. Earth was first used as the name of the sphere of the Earth in the early fifteenth century.^[5] The planet's name in Latin, used academically and scientifically in the West during the Renaissance, is the same as that of Terra Mater, the Roman goddess, which translates to English as Mother Earth.

Planetary symbol

The standard astronomical symbol of the Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle. This symbol is known as the wheel cross, sun cross, Odin's cross or Woden's cross. Although it has been used in various cultures for different purposes, it came to represent the compass points, Earth and the land. Another version of the symbol is a cross on top of a circle; a stylized globus cruciger that was also used as an early astronomical symbol for the planet Earth.^[6]

Religious beliefs

Earth has often been personified as a deity, in particular a goddess. In many cultures the mother goddess is also portrayed as a fertility deity. To the Aztec, Earth was called Tonantzin—"our mother"; to the Incas, Earth was called Pachamama—"mother earth". The Chinese Earth goddess Hou Tu^[7] is similar to Gaia, the Greek goddess personifying the Earth. To Hindus it is called Bhuma Devi, the Goddess of Earth. (See also Graha.) The Tuluva people of Tulunadu in Southern India celebrate a Three Day "Earth Day" called Keddaso. This festival comes in usually on 10th,12th,13 February every Calendar year. In Norse mythology, the Earth giantess Jörð was the mother of Thor and the daughter of Annar. Ancient Egyptian mythology is different from that of other cultures because Earth is male, Geb, and sky is female, Nut.

Creation myths in many religions recall a story involving the creation of the world by a supernatural deity or deities. A variety of religious groups, often associated with fundamentalist branches of Protestantism^[8] or Islam,^[9] assert that their interpretations of the accounts of creation in sacred texts are literal truth and should be considered alongside or replace conventional scientific accounts of the formation of the Earth and the origin and development of life.^[10] Such assertions are opposed by the scientific community^[11]^[12] as well as other religious groups.^[13]^[14]^[15] A prominent example is the creation-evolution controversy.

Physical form

In the ancient past there were varying levels of belief in a flat Earth, with the Mesopotamian culture portraying the world as a flat disk afloat in an ocean. The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers; a belief espoused by Pythagoras. By the Middle Ages—as evidenced by thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas—European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread.^[16]

Modern perspective

The technological developments of the latter half of the 20th century are widely considered to have altered the public's perception of the Earth. Before space flight, the popular image of Earth was of a green world. Science fiction artist Frank R. Paul provided perhaps the first image of a cloudless blue planet (with sharply defined land masses) on the back cover of the July 1940 issue of Amazing Stories, a common depiction for several decades thereafter.^[17]

Earth was first photographed from space by Explorer 6 in 1959.^[18] Yuri Gagarin became the first human to view Earth from space in 1961. The crew of the Apollo 8 was the first to view an Earth-rise from lunar orbit in 1968, and astronaut William Anders's photograph of it, Earthrise, became iconic. In 1972 the crew of the Apollo 17 produced The Blue Marble, another famous photograph of the planet Earth from cislunar space. These became iconic images of the planet as a marble of cloud-swirled blue ocean broken by green-brown continents. NASA archivist Mike Gentry has speculated that The Blue Marble is the most widely distributed image in human history. Inspired by The Blue Marble poet-diplomat Abhay K has penned an Earth Anthem describing the planet as a "Cosmic Blue Pearl".^[19] A photo taken of a distant Earth by Voyager 1 in 1990 inspired Carl Sagan to name it and describe the planet as a Pale Blue Dot.^[20]

Since the 1960s, Earth has also been described as a massive "Spaceship Earth," with a life support system that requires maintenance,^[21] or, in the Gaia hypothesis, as having a biosphere that forms one large organism.^[22]

Over the past two centuries a growing environmental movement has emerged that is concerned about humankind's effects on the Earth. The key issues of this socio-political movement are the conservation of natural resources, elimination of pollution, and the usage of land.^[23] Although diverse in interests and goals, environmentalists as a group tend to advocate sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior.^[24] Of particular concern is the large-scale exploitation of non-renewable resources.^[25] Changes sought by the environmental movements are sometimes in conflict with commercial interests due to the additional costs associated with managing the environmental impact of those interests.^[26]^[27]^[28]

See also

References

1. ^{{cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like? - For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |date=24 December 2018 |work=The New York Times |accessdate=25 December 2018 }}
2. ^{{cite web | first=Bill | last=Arnett | date=16 July 2006 | title=Earth | work=The Nine Planets, A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System: one star, eight planets, and more | url=http://nineplanets.org/earth.html | accessdate=2010-03-09 }}
3. ^{{cite web | first=Jennifer | last=Blue | date=25 June 2009 | title=Planetary Nomenclature FAQ | work=Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature | url=http://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/nomenFAQ.html | accessdate=2010-01-06 }}
4. ^{{cite book |date=July 2005 | title=Random House Unabridged Dictionary | publisher=Random House | isbn=978-0-375-42599-8 }}
5. ^{{cite web | last = Harper| first = Douglas |date=November 2001 | url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=earth | title = Earth | publisher = Online Etymology Dictionary | accessdate = 2007-08-07 }}
6. ^{{cite book | first=Carl G. | last=Liungman | year=2004 | chapter=Group 29: Multi-axes symmetric, both soft and straight-lined, closed signs with crossing lines | title=Symbols -- Encyclopedia of Western Signs and Ideograms | pages=281–282 | publisher=Ionfox AB | location=New York | isbn=978-91-972705-0-2 }}
7. ^{{cite book | first=E. T. C. | last=Werner | year=1922 | title=Myths & Legends of China | publisher=George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. | location=New York | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15250 | accessdate=2007-03-14 }}
8. ^{{cite journal | author = Dutch, S.I. | year = 2002 | title = Religion as belief versus religion as fact | journal = Journal of Geoscience Education | volume = 50 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–144 | url=http://nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Dutch_v50n2p137.pdf | accessdate = 2008-04-28| bibcode = 2002JGeEd..50..137D | doi = 10.5408/1089-9995-50.2.137 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.404.522 }}
9. ^{{cite book | author = Taner Edis | authorlink = Taner Edis | year = 2003 | title = A World Designed by God: Science and Creationism in Contemporary Islam | publisher = Amherst: Prometheus | url = http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf | isbn = 978-1-59102-064-6 | accessdate = 2008-04-28 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080527192629/http://www2.truman.edu/~edis/writings/articles/CFI-2001.pdf | archivedate = 2008-05-27 | df = }}
10. ^{{cite journal | author = Ross, M.R. | year = 2005 | title = Who Believes What? Clearing up Confusion over Intelligent Design and Young-Earth Creationism | journal = Journal of Geoscience Education | volume = 53 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–323 | url = http://www.nagt.org/files/nagt/jge/abstracts/Ross_v53n3p319.pdf | accessdate = 2008-04-28| bibcode = 2005JGeEd..53..319R| doi = 10.5408/1089-9995-53.3.319| citeseerx = 10.1.1.404.1340 }}
11. ^{{cite journal |author=Pennock RT |title=Creationism and intelligent design |journal=Annu Rev Genom Hum Genet |volume=4 |issue= 1|pages=143–63 |year=2003 |pmid=14527300 |doi=10.1146/annurev.genom.4.070802.110400}}
12. ^Science, Evolution, and Creationism National Academy Press, Washington, DC 2005
13. ^{{cite journal | author = Colburn, A. |author2=Henriques, L. | year = 2006 | title = Clergy views on evolution, creationism, science, and religion | journal = Journal of Research in Science Teaching | volume = 43 | issue = 4 | pages = 419–442 | doi = 10.1002/tea.20109 | bibcode=2006JRScT..43..419C}}
14. ^{{cite book | author = Roland Mushat Frye | year = 1983 | title = Is God a Creationist? The Religious Case Against Creation-Science. | publisher = Scribner's | isbn = 978-0-684-17993-3}}
15. ^{{cite journal | author = Gould, S.J. | year = 1997 | title = Nonoverlapping magisteria | journal = Natural History | volume = 106 | issue = 2 | pages = 16–22 | url = http://www.jbburnett.com/resources/gould_nonoverlapping.pdf | accessdate = 2008-04-28}}
16. ^{{cite web | last = Russell | first = Jeffrey B. | url = http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/history/1997Russell.html | title = The Myth of the Flat Earth | publisher = American Scientific Affiliation | accessdate = 2007-03-14 }}; but see also Cosmas Indicopleustes
17. ^{{cite book | last = Ackerman | first = Forrest J | authorlink = Forrest J Ackerman | year = 1997 | title = Forrest J Ackerman's World of Science Fiction | publisher = RR Donnelley & Sons Company | location = Los Angeles | isbn = 978-1-57544-069-9 | pages = 116–117 }}
18. ^{{cite web | author=Staff |date=October 1998 | url = http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/pdf/106420main_explorers.pdf | title = Explorers: Searching the Universe Forty Years Later | publisher = NASA/Goddard | accessdate = 2007-03-05 }}
19. ^An Anthem for the Earth Kathmandu Post, May 25, 2013
20. ^{{cite web | author=Staff | url = http://gtrc911.quaker.org/pale_blue_dot.html | title = Pale Blue Dot | publisher = SETI@home | accessdate = 2006-04-02 }}
21. ^{{cite book |first = R. Buckminster |last = Fuller |authorlink = Buckminster Fuller |year = 1963 |title = Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth |edition = First |publisher = E.P. Dutton & Co. |location = New York |isbn = 978-0-525-47433-3 |url = http://www.futurehi.net/docs/OperatingManual.html |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041028062223/http://www.futurehi.net/docs/OperatingManual.html |dead-url = yes |archive-date = 2004-10-28 |accessdate = 2007-04-21}}
22. ^{{cite book | first=James E. | last=Lovelock | authorlink=James Lovelock | year=1979 | title=Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth | edition=First | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-286030-9 }}
23. ^{{cite book | first=Anthony J. | last=McMichael | year=1993 | title=Planetary Overload: Global Environmental Change and the Health of the Human Species | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-45759-0 }}
24. ^{{cite book | first=James P. | last=Lester | year=1995 | title=Environmental Politics and Policy: Theories and Evidence | publisher=Duke University Press | pages=115–119 | isbn=978-0-8223-1569-8 }}
25. ^{{cite book |author1=Lafferty, William M. |author2=Langhelle, Oluf | year=1999 | title=Towards Sustainable Development: On the Goals of Development and the Conditions of Sustainability | pages=30–41 | publisher=St. Martin's Press | isbn=978-0-312-21669-6 }}
26. ^{{cite journal |author1=Barbera, Anthony J. |author2=McConnell, Virginia D. | title=The impact of environmental regulations on industry productivity: Direct and indirect effects | journal=Journal of Environmental Economics and Management |date=January 1990 | volume=18 | issue=1 | pages=50–65 | doi=10.1016/0095-0696(90)90051-Y}}
27. ^{{cite journal |author1=Jaffe, A. |author2=Adam, B. |author3=Peterson, S. |author4=Portney, P. |author5=Stavins, R. | title=Environmental Regulation and the Competitiveness of U.S. Manufacturing: What Does the Evidence Tell Us? | journal=Journal of Economic Literature |date=March 1995 | volume=33 | issue=1 | pages=132–163 | accessdate=2009-01-24 | url=http://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/jeclit/v33y1995i1p132-163.html}}
28. ^{{cite book | first=Fred | last=Moavenzadeh | year=1994 | title=Global Construction and the Environment: Strategies and Opportunities | pages=30–41 | publisher=Wiley-IEEE | isbn=978-0-471-01289-4 }}