While, in some states, other parties were allowed to exist, frequently their only substantial function was to legitimize the existence of a national front or some similar umbrella organization.^[37] The organization of the party was based on the "territorial-production" principle, meaning that the lowest level unit could be based either in an area or in a place of work.^[37] The next highest level was territorial, into districts, towns, regions and states.^[37] Each level had its own committees, bureau and secretariat.^[37]

Purges and show trials

In accordance with Soviet directives, "building communism" in the Eastern Bloc included liquidation of class enemies and constant vigilance against counterrevolutionaries, especially within the Communist parties themselves.^[21] In the late 1940s and early 1950s, more frequently after the campaign to route out "Titoists" after the 1948 Tito-Stalin split, protests occurred, with many of those taking part being workers, intellectuals, dissatisfied young men inducted into the peasantry as part of collectivizations and those who were originally most enthusiastic about Communist systems.^[43][44] In response, in Poland, the central committee held a "vigilance plenum" against nationalists.^[45] One of the methods of control involved several party purges between 1948 and 1953, including 90,000 purged in Bulgaria, 200,000 in Romania (about one third of party), 200,000 in Hungary, 300,000 in East Germany, 370,000 in Poland (about one quarter of party members) and 550,000 in Czechoslovakia (30% of the party).^[43][45] In Hungary, approximately 150,000 were also imprisoned, with 2,000 summarily executed.^[43] In the Estonian SSR, a purge of "bourgeois nationalists" from the Estonian Communist party occurred from 1949 to 1951.^[46] In Czechoslovakia, approximately 130,000 people were sent to prisons, labor camps and mines.^[43] The evolution of the resulting harshness of purges in Czechoslovakia, like much of its history after 1948, was a function of the late takeover by the communists, with many of the purges focusing on the sizable numbers of party members with prior memberships in other parties.^[47] Party leader Klement Gottwald's early claims that Czechoslovakia was different from the rest of the Eastern Bloc created jealousy and additional danger later when Stalin was showing an almost paranoiac desire for unity and uniformity.^[47]

Nine copies of reports, confessions and other documents in all countries' purges were circulated to Soviet and other Eastern Bloc leaders.^[128] In Poland, when the local leadership resisted Soviet pressure for show trials, the Soviets demanded the construction of more prisons, including one containing a special wing for high-ranking party members.^[48] The intensity of the purges varied by country, with thorough purges in places with a relatively popular party in Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, and less thorough purges in places where the party was initially less well-established, such as Poland, Romania and East Germany.^[130]

Any member with a western connection was immediately vulnerable, which included large numbers of people who had spent years in exile in the West during the Nazi-occupation of Czechoslovakia and Hungary.^[49] Many veterans of the Spanish Civil War were imprisoned or killed because they were tainted by their western experiences.^[49] Persons with western wives also were the targets of persecution.^[49] In addition to connections with Tito or Yugoslavia, persons who had previously belonged to non-communist parties merged in the Bloc politics process were also at risk, as were members from a non-working-class background.^[49]

In addition to rank-and-file member purges, prominent communists were purged, with some subjected to public show trials.^[45] These were more likely to be instigated, and sometimes orchestrated, by the Kremlin or even Stalin, as he had done in the Moscow Trials of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union in the 1930s.^[49] They included Koçi Xoxe in Albania and Traicho Kostov in Bulgaria, who were both purged and arrested.^[44] After Kostov was executed, Bulgarian leaders sent Stalin a telegram thanking him for the help.^[49] In Romania, Lucreţiu Pătrăşcanu, Ana Pauker and Vasile Luca were arrested, with Pătrăşcanu being executed.^[45] Stalin's NKVD emissary coordinated with Hungarian General Secretary Mátyás Rákosi and his ÁVH head the way the show trial of Hungarian Foreign Minister László Rajk, who was later executed.^[49] The Rajk trials led Moscow to warn Czechoslovakia's parties that enemy agents had penetrated high into party ranks, and when a puzzled Rudolf Slánský and Klement Gottwald inquired what they could do, Stalin's NKVD agents arrived to help prepare subsequent trials. The Czechoslovakian party subsequently arrested Slánský himself, Vladimír Clementis, Ladislav Novomeský and Gustáv Husák (Clementis was later executed).^[45] Slánský and eleven others were convicted together of being "Trotskyist-zionist-titoist-bourgeois-nationalist traitors" in one series of show trials, after which they were executed and their ashes were mixed with material being used to fill roads on the outskirts of Prague.^[45] By the time of the Slánský trials, the Kremlin had been arguing that Israel, like Yugoslavia, had bitten the Soviet hand that had fed it, and thus the trials took an overtly anti-Semitic tone, with eleven of the fourteen defendants tried with Slánský being Jewish.^[130]

The Soviets directed show trial methods, including a procedure in which confessions and "evidence" from leading witnesses could be extracted by any means, including threatening to torture the witnesses’ wives and children.^[48] The higher ranking the party member, generally the more harsh the torture that was inflicted upon him.^[48] For the show trial of Hungarian Interior Minister János Kádár, who one year earlier attempted to force a confession of László Rajk in his show trial, regarding "Vladimir" the questioner of Kádár:^[48]

Kádár was raised from the ground. Vladimir stepped close. Two henchmen pried Kádár’s teeth apart, and the colonel, negligently, as if this were the most natural thing in the world, urinated into his mouth.}}

After this trial, Kádár later rose to General Secretary of the ruling Hungarian Working People's Party when Imre Nagy was executed. Once in the interrogation room, the inquisitors made no pretense about attempting to seek real evidence, making it clear that their only task was to extract a confession that would be used to convince other people of the defendant's guilt.^[48] Many dedicated party members accepted the argument that they could perform one last service to the party by allowing themselves to be convicted of crimes that they had not committed.^[48] Even after the party reneged on a deal that was supposed to have spared László Rajk, Rajk allegedly yelled just before his execution "long live the party!"^[50] For those not executed, degradation and humiliation continued for years in prison or labor camps.^[48]

The evidence was often not just non-existent but absurd, with Hungarian George Paloczi-Horváth’s party interrogators delightedly exclaiming "We knew all the time—we have it here in writing—that you met professor Szentgyörgyi not in Istanbul, but in Constantinople."^[50] In another case, the Hungarian ÁVH secret police also condemned another party member as a Nazi accomplice with a document that had actually been previously displayed in glass cabinet of the Institute of the Working Class Movement as an example of a Gestapo forgery.^[50] The trials themselves were "shows", with each participant having to learn a script and conduct repeated rehearsals before the performance.^[50] In the Slánský trial, when the judge skipped one of the scripted questions, the better-rehearsed Slánský answered the one which should have been asked.^[50]

Administrative structures

Initially, communist parties were small in all countries except Czechoslovakia, such that there existed an acute shortage of politically "trustworthy" persons for administration, police and other professions.^[51] Accordingly, "politically unreliable" non-communists initially filled such roles.^[51] Those not obedient to communist authorities were ousted, while Moscow cadres started a large-scale party programs to train personnel who would meet political requirements.^[51]

In addition, throughout the Eastern Bloc, armies appeared in Soviet-style uniforms studying military manuals copied from the Red Army.^[158] The party dominated the armed forces, with party members comprising almost every rank above captain.^[38]

Two lists were often kept by the party structure: the cadre and the nomenklatura lists. The latter contained every post in each country that was important to the smooth application of party policy, including military posts, administrative positions, directors of local enterprises, social organization administrators, newspapers, etc.^[52] In Czechoslovakia, the nomenklatura lists were thought to contain 100,000 post listings, while the number estimated in Poland was 2-3 times that figure.^[52] The names of those that the party considered to be trustworthy enough to secure a nomenklatura post were compiled on the cadre list.^[52] One did not have to be a party member to be on the cadre list, but any sign of unconventional behavior would mean exclusion from the list.^[52] The considerable amount of information disseminated to the party from police or trusted observers ensured that the cadre lists were timely and comprehensive.^[52] The end result was that anyone aspiring to have an influential or rewarding job had to conform to party dictates.^[52]

De-Stalinization

Some relaxation of Soviet control occurred after Stalin's death in 1953 and the subsequent de-stalinization.^[53] State brutality and repression waned in the Bloc.^[21] The Red Army withdrew from the Balkans, though not from East Germany and countries needed for transit purposes.^[53] Continuing maintenance of communist power was guaranteed by the Brezhnev Doctrine, such as in the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, on the grounds that a threat to the system in one country was a challenge to the alliance as a whole.^[53]

As with Yugoslavia after the Tito-Stalin split, Albania took a different course than most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. Because of Party of Labour of Albania First Secretary Enver Hoxha's dogmatic Stalinist adherence, Albania broke with the Soviet Union in 1960 following the Soviet de-stalinization.^[54] Albania began to establish closer contacts with Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China.^[54] Following Mao's death and China seeking close ties with the United States,^[172] Albania also severed ties with China in 1978.^[54]

The cult of personality intensified around Hoxha, who became increasingly paranoid about foreign intrigue and conspiracy.^[54] Hoxha tolerated no dissent and thousands of Albanians were executed, sent to state labor camps or exiled to remote areas for work.^[55] After a purge in the military and the economic bureaucracy, in 1976, Albania implemented a rigidly Marxist-Leninist constitution that not only made the party the leading force in state and society, but also limited private property and forbade foreign loans.^[56] Isolating itself completely from the rest of the world, Albania embarked on a massive defense program, including the amassing of a huge arsenal of weapons and the construction of more than 700,000 concrete military bunkers for a country with only 3 million citizens.^[54]

Political repression

While the initial institution of communism destroyed most of the prior institutional and organizational diversity of the Eastern Bloc countries,^[57] communist structures existed in different manifestations of strength that also varied over time.^[58] In such Communist systems, centralized and unelected state apparatuses, command economies, and scarcity or absence of independent civil associations specifically combined to tightly restrict the repertoire of action for those looking to defend their interests or press demands on the government.^[59] These features did not evolve, but rather were intentionally imposed over a relatively short span of time.^[59]

As in the Soviet Union, culture was subordinated to political needs and creativity was secondary to socialist realism.^[60] The legal system and education were redesigned on Soviet lines.^[61] In addition to emigration restrictions, civil society, defined as a domain of political action outside the party's state control, was not allowed to firmly take root, with the possible exception of Poland in the 1980s.^[58] While the institutional designs of the communist systems were based on the rejection of rule of law, the legal infrastructure was not immune to change reflecting decaying ideology and the substitution of autonomous law.^[58]

While institutional changes creating some freedoms occurred, a change toward effective constitutionalism could not occur without the collapse of the communist political regimes.^[58] Market-oriented reforms could not work without functioning markets.^[36] Such systems' subordination of society was not so much the result of recurrent state triumphs over rival groups as it was intermittent state triumphs combined with state-imposed structures that broke requisite links and occupied the social space necessary for rival groups to initially form.^[62]

Political dissent

Communist regimes in the Eastern Bloc viewed even marginal groups of opposition intellectuals as a potential threat because of the bases underlying Communist power therein.^[63] The central pillar on which the monopoly power of the Communist elite was based was the belief of the administrative classes—mid-level leadership cadres in the party apparatus, industry, security organs, education and state administration—in the legitimacy of the Communist Party.^[63] The perceived danger posed by dissidence and opposition was less that of the possible mobilization of broad open protest movements undermining a regime than that political nonconformism would undermine the reliability of the administrative classes responsible for carrying the party leadership's directives.^[63]

Accordingly, the suppression of dissidence and opposition was viewed as a central prerequisite for the security of Communist power, though the enormous expense at which the population in certain countries were kept under secret surveillance may not have been rational.^[63] The degree of opposition and dissident suppression varied by country and time throughout the Eastern Bloc.^[63] Following a totalitarian initial phase, a post-totalitarian period followed the death of Stalin in which the primary method of Communist rule shifted from wide scale terror to selective repression and ideological and sociopolitical strategies of legitimation and the securing of loyalty.^[64]

Post-totalitarian phase repression varied across Eastern Bloc countries according to the degree of internal coherence and the social anchoring of the Communist elites in each country.^[65] Trial by jury was replaced by a tribunal of a professional judge and two lay assessors that were dependable party actors.^[66] The features of such Communist systems combined to structure the social and political environment to raise the cost of open protest, often to a prohibitive level.^[62] While resistance existed, it occurred mainly in the form of individual measures predicated on acceptance of the system as a whole that paradoxically often further atrophied the avenues of collective redress against the state, such as workers intentionally wasting time on the job or stealing state resources.^[62]

Class categories

Citizens were classified by socialist origin and class, with the standard categories being: worker, peasant, intelligentsia, petty employee, others and class enemies.^[199] In order to gain a more obedient future intelligentsia, the children of class enemies were restricted to no more than primary education, while those of the fourth and fifth categories would find it difficult to gain entrance into a university.^[199] Criminal codes could also be graded on a class basis, with the class origin of the convicted determining how dangerous to society the crime had been.^[199]

Broad social purges

In addition to party purges, more widespread social purges occurred, and were aimed with equal or greater intensity at all levels of society.^[67] As with the party purges, the social purges were justified theoretically by the Stalinist doctrine that the class struggle intensifies in the immediate aftermath of the socialist revolution and in the first stages of the construction of socialism.^[203] Consequently, bourgeois and petty-bourgeois attitudes arose leading, for example, to the reliance upon home production and the black market in the resulting shortage economies.^[203] When added to the perceived external dangers of the Cold War, and especially following the paranoia arising from the Tito-Stalin split, an emphasis was put on stopping the internal dangers of petty-bourgeois activities which might foment additional resistance and popular sympathy of the masses for the west.^[68]

These social purges constituted generalized episodes of terror intended to be seen as such in order to establish order and control.^[67] No person was safe from the purges' effects and denunciations were rife.^[67] The definitions of crime employed in such purges were broad and vague, including the possession of goods in short supply being construed as hoarding.^[67] It was the responsibility of all citizens to integrate into their daily lives the responsibility for administering the purges.^[67] A former Romanian Securitate leader stated:^[67]{{cquote|This was achieved by a simple device: a factory, a local government department, a professional organization was given a quota of people to be weeded out, which might mean sacking, sending to the mines or handing over to the security police as class enemies under the accusation of whatever happened to be the fashionable crime. The steering committee of the organization, or the man responsible for personnel matters, knew that if they did not comply they would themselves be the victims. So they did comply, telling everybody that they saved ninety-eight good people by selecting two sacrificial lambs who were anyhow ‘not much good’, were spoiling things for everybody by working too hard, drinking too much or too little, were odd because they refused to sleep with the right person, or simply, and this was always a safe argument, were Jews.}}

In Budapest, Hungary, at 2:00 a.m. on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, vans transported purge targets, who by 1953, numbered approximately 700,000.^[67] Of those, 98,000 were branded as spies and saboteurs, 5,000 of which were executed.^[67] In Czechoslovakia between 1948 and 1954, approximately 150,000 targets were arrested.^[67] Similar proportions of the population suffered in other Eastern Bloc states.^[67]

Civil society groups

As with the party purges, any institution with western connections was particularly vulnerable.^[67] Eastern Bloc branches of organizations with western contacts, such as the boy scouts, the girl guides and the international federation of professional and business women, were closed.^[67] Churches were subjected to attack, including the Uniate church in the Ukraine and Romania, Protestants in Bulgaria and the Roman Catholic Church in Hungary.^[67] People that constituted former "class enemies" because of their social upbringing were at risk, as well as those with prior memberships in non-communist parties.^[69]

While the purges quelled outward manifestations of dissatisfaction, they also caused severe economic dislocations.^[70] Large construction projects were launched with insufficient capital such that unpaid prisoners were required to serve in place of modern equipment.^[70] Disruption of the trained administrative and management elites also caused harm.^[70] So many workers were dismissed from established professions that they had to be replaced by hastily trained younger workers that did not possess questionable class origins.^[70] A Czechoslovakian noted:^[70]{{cquote|The highly qualified professional people are laying roads, building bridges and operating machines, and the dumb clots—whose fathers used to dig, sweep or bricklay—are on top, telling the others where to lay the roads, what to produce and how to spend the country’s money. The consequence is the roads look like plowed fields, we make things we can’t sell and the bridges can’t be used for traffic…. Then they wonder why the economy is going downhill like a ten-ton lorry with the brakes off.}}

The purges often coincided with the introduction of the first Five Year Plans in the non-Soviet members of the Eastern Bloc.^[224] The objectives of those plans were considered beyond political rapproche even where they were absurd, such that workers that did not fulfill targets were targeted and blamed for economic woes, while at the same time, the ultimate responsibility for the economic shortcomings would be placed on prominent victims of the political purge.^[71] In Romania, Gheorghiu-Dej admitted that 80,000 peasants had been accused of siding with the class enemy because they resisted collectivization, while purged party elite Ana Pauker was blamed for this "distortion".^[71]

In addition, sizable resources were employed in the purge, such as in Hungary, where almost one million adults were employed to record, control, indoctrinate, spy on and sometimes kill targets of the purge.^[70] Unlike the repressions under Nazi occupation, no ongoing war existed that could bring an end to the tribulations of the Eastern Bloc, and morale severely suffered as a consequence.^[72] Because the party later had to admit the mistakes of much that occurred during the purges after Stalin's death, the purges also destroyed the moral base upon which the party operated.^[72] In doing so, the party abrogated its prior Leninist claim to moral infallibility for the working class.^[72]

Secret police

Eastern Bloc secret police organizations were formed on Vladimir Lenin's theory and Joseph Stalin's practical application of "the defense of the revolution."^[73] One of the first acts of Lenin after the October 1917 Revolution was the establishment of a secret police, the Cheka.^[73] Such organizations in the Eastern Bloc became the "shield and sword" of the ruling Communist party.^[73] The party's claim was based on Lenin's general theory of class struggle, imperialism, legitimate socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat.^[73]

The police served to deter opposition to party directives, and contain it should it appear.^[66] The political police were the core of the system.^[66] Large numbers of citizens were recruited, sometimes through blackmail, to become informers for the secret police.^[74] Sophisticated police networks monitored all strata of society while persecuting only those who overtly expressed dissatisfaction or disagreement with the regime.^[74] The names of each political police organization became synonymous with unbridled power and threats of violent retribution should an individual become active against the collective.^[66] After Stalin's death in 1953, in general, the profile of the secret police declined, and became less a means to instill terror than to preserve the existing distribution of political power, overall becoming more reactive than proactive.^[75] The exceptions to this lower profile were in Albania under Enver Hoxha and in Romania under Nicolae Ceauşescu.^[75] The linchpin of Soviet control early in the Eastern Block was General Ivan Serov, who was appointed to chairman of the new Soviet KGB in 1954 as a reward for having effectively applied his secret police expertise to the sovietization of the Eastern Bloc.^[76]

KGB and the formation of the Stasi

During party purges, the secret police became so entrenched within the party that they became their own elite within the elite of the party.^[72] State police organizations were vast. The East German Stasi became the Soviet KGB's most important surrogate following Lenin's statement that "the principal link in the chain of revolution is the German link, and the success of world revolution depends more on Germany than upon any other country."^[73] In 1947, Stalin told Edvard Kardelj, then prime minister of Yugoslavia, "We Russians will never get out of Germany."^[73] The NKVD at first maintained a number of former Nazi concentration camps, such as Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen, to house former Nazis.^[77] After the forced merger of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany thousands of anti-Nazi social democrats and communists that opposed the merger also ended up in those camps.^[77] Erich Mielke, a key operator for the Soviets after the war, built the Stasi into a vast secret police and espionage organization.^[77] Mielke became the longest-serving state security chief in the Eastern bloc, and his relationship with the Soviet secret police dated back to 1931, when he had fled Germany for Moscow after murdering two Berlin policemen.^[77] Although Mielke's Stasi was superficially granted independence in 1957, until 1990 the KGB continued to maintain liaison officers in all eight main Stasi directorates, each with his own office inside the Stasi's Berlin compound, and in each of the fifteen Stasi district headquarters around East Germany.^[78] Collaboration was so close that the KGB invited the Stasi to establish operational bases in Moscow and Leningrad to monitor visiting East German tourists and Mielke referred to the Stasi officers as "Chekists of the Soviet Union."^[78] In 1978, Mielke formally granted KGB officers in East Germany the same rights and powers they enjoyed in the Soviet Union.^[78]

All information acquired worldwide by the intelligence and security services in the Eastern bloc was stored in the Soviet computer SOUD (System of Joint Acquisition of Enemy Data).^[253] The SOUD became a valuable KGB asset for the Stasi.^[79] Stasi engineers had actually created the system using stolen and illegally obtained Western technology, but the Soviets insisted that it be based in Moscow.^[79]

Stasi operations

The Stasi employed 120,000 full-time agents and an official estimate of 100,000 informants to monitor a country that possessed only 16 million inhabitants.^[80] Between 1950 and 1989, the Stasi employed a total of 274,000 persons.^[81] In terms of total inoffizielle Mitarbeiter (IMs) Stasi informants, by 1995, 174,000 had been identified, which approximated 2.5% of East Germany's population between the ages of 18 and 60.^[81] While these calculations were from official records, because many such records were destroyed, there were likely closer to 500,000 Stasi informers.^[81] A former Stasi colonel estimated that the figure could be as high as 2 million if occasional informants were included.^[81]

The result was a society in which residents often did not know whom to trust, and in which few attempted to share their private thoughts with anyone but close friends or colleagues.^[80] A popular saying in East Germany was that whenever three people engaged in a conversation, one was bound to be a Stasi informant.^[80] Stasi efforts with one agent per 166 citizens dwarfed, for example, the Nazi Gestapo, which employed only 40,000 officials to watch a population of 80 million (one officer per 2,000 citizens) and the Soviet KGB, which employed 480,000 full-time agents to oversee a nation of 280 million residents (one agent per 5,830 citizens).^[82] When informants were included, the Stasi had one spy per 66 citizens of East Germany.^[82] When part-time informer adults were included, the figures reached approximately one spy per 6.5 citizens.^[82]

Full-time officers were posted to all major industrial plants and one tenant in every apartment building was designated as a watchdog reporting to an area representative of the Volkspolizei (Vopo).^[82] Spies reported every relative or friend that stayed the night at another's apartment.^[82] Tiny holes were bored in apartment and hotel room walls through which Stasi agents filmed citizens with special video cameras.^[82] Similarly, schools, universities, and hospitals were extensively infiltrated.^[82]

Political offenses usually came under broad crimes such as "Treasonable Relaying of Information", "Treasonable Agent Activity" and "Interference in Activities of the State or Society."^[270] Defendants usually were persons who had requested (nominally) legal exit permits from East Germany or contacted a Western consulate to inquire about emigration procedures.^[270] Sentences of up to two and a half years' hard labor were not unusual as punishment for such inquiries.^[270] Those accused of "propaganda hostile to the state" could be those that once stated that it was not necessary to station tanks at the border, referred to border fortifications as "nonsense" or received West German television programs and relayed the contents to others.^[83] Writing to friends in the west about wishes to emigrate, which the Stasi could intercept, could draw a conviction for "establishing illegal contacts."^[83] In addition, it was a crime to fail to denounce fellow citizens, such as informers who failed to report friends stating they wished to escape to the west.^[83] After the mid-1950s, Stasi executions were carried out in strict secrecy, usually by guillotine and, in later years, by a single pistol shot to the neck.^[84] In most instances, the relatives of the executed were not informed of either the sentence or the execution.^[84] The corpses were cremated and the ashes buried secretly, sometimes at construction sites.^[84]

The Stasi also focused upon the allies of the ruling communist Socialist Unity Party of Germany party.^[85] For example, during the Soviet-backed forced merger of the SED, the Stasi arrested 5,000 Social Democratic Party of Germany party members that disapproved of the merger.^[85] 400 died from a mix of executions, malnutrition or disappearing.^[85] 200 of them were later sentenced to a total of 10,000 years jail time.^[85] Until 1950, all such sentences were pronounced by Soviet military tribunals in trials that lasted no more than ten minutes each.^[85]

While the Stasi had only 4,000 members in 1953, it grew considerably over the years to 52,707 in 1973.^[86] Its ranks swelled much more quickly after Eastern Bloc countries signed the 1975 Helsinki accords, which Erich Honecker viewed as a grave threat to his regime because they contained language binding signatories to respect "human and basic rights, including freedom of thought, conscience, religion, and conviction.^[86] Stasi size was immediately increased by 10,000.^[86] Mielke was accorded new, wide-ranging powers while the Stasi became the leadership's instrument of power to an extent not seen in the Eastern Bloc since Stalin's death, with the possible exception of the Securitate in Romania under Nicolae Ceaușescu.^[86] The Stasi then set up 24 internment camps throughout East Germany to house six categories of persons to be arrested.^[87]

Mielke then issued Richtlinie 1/76, a standard operating procedure manual outlining surveillance of the population down to the last detail.^[87] Stasi Division M employed officers at every post office to surreptitiously open all letters and parcels sent to, or received from, a non-communist country.^[88] Writing samples were taken from letters that could be used to match with writing on any dissident pamphlets.^[89] Those questioned by the Stasi were forced to put special cloths under the arms that were later stored in sealed and numbered cans in a massive warehouse for later use by bloodhounds in the event of a manhunt.^[88] The Stasi also sprayed a special chemical on sidewalks in front of their offices that would adhere to the shoes of those leaving and permit dogs more easily to track them.^[89] In the late 1970s, when certain western news organizations were allowed to employ offices in East Berlin, they were required to hire all employees from a specified labour pool, all of whom were Stasi informants.^[90]

State police organizations

Under Nicolae Ceauşescu, the powers of the Securitate secret police increased^[91] to become, in proportion to Romania's population, one of the largest and most brutal secret police forces in the Eastern bloc.^[92] By 1989, total Securitate personnel officers and security troops totalled 38,682 for a population of 23 million.^[93] The Securitate employed nearly a half-million informers.^[92][93] Following several leaders of a miner strike later dying of premature disease, it was later discovered that Securitate doctors had subjected them to five-minute-long chest X-rays in an attempt to develop cancer.^[91] After birth rates fell, Securitate agents were placed in all gynecological wards while regular pregnancy tests were mandated for women of child-bearing age in Romania, with severe penalties for anyone who was found to have terminated a pregnancy.^[91] The Securitate also arrested 80,000 peasants who opposed labor reforms in 1949.^[94]

Albania's Sigurimi, under the leadership of isolationist Stalinist Enver Hoxha, were as brutal as the Securitate.^[95] From the beginning, the ÁVH (first known as the ÁVO) acted as the private army of the ruling Hungarian Working People's Party.^[96] Preceding the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, the ÁVH, which fired on protesters, was opposed by the Hungarian army and abolished for a brief period during the revolution until the Red Army's invasion of Hungary thereafter.^[97] In Bulgaria, the Sigurnost grew throughout the 1970s and became even more subservient to the KGB as leader Todor Zhivkov declared that Bulgaria and the Soviet Union would "act as a single body, breathing with the same lungs and nourished by the same blood stream", and attempted to incorporate Bulgaria in the Soviet Union.^[98] The UDBa in Yugoslavia were dominated by ethnic Serbs who helped to enforce Serbian domination over Yugoslavia.^[99]

In Poland, the Urząd Bezpieczeństwa ("Security Office", or UB) was initially formed to wage a covert war against communists in Poland.^[100] The UB was modelled on the Soviet NKVD, whose specialists had helped forge the new "shield of the state."^[100] NKVD chief Ivan Serov had begun training Polish NKVD recruits as early as 1940, when the Soviets initially invaded eastern Poland, including training in the Soviet Union.^[100] By 1945, the UB, under NKVD control, had agents in every branch of the Polish government.^[101]

Several state police and secret police organizations enforced communist party rule, including:

The secret police and Eastern Bloc dissolution

The Stasi acted as a proxy for KGB conduct activities in Poland, where the Soviets were not well liked.^[102] When the Polish Solidarity movement arose, Stasi-KGB data was immediately handed to the Polish SB which immediately arrested hundred of Solidarity members within a few hours of declaring martial law, as demanded by the Soviets.^[103] All telephone, telegraph and mail traffic in and out of Poland was put under Stasi control, while a massive Stasi Tenth Department of the Second Main Directorate (counterintelligence) was created to monitor Poland.^[104] With worries throughout the Eastern Bloc of a possible collapse if communism fell in any country, the Stasi Tenth Department dispatched operational groups to Czechoslovakia and Hungary.^[104] The Tenth Department, however, could not monitor the large number of discontented citizens in the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s, with the first significant breach coming Hungary when the government therein ordered the dismantling of fortifications and barbed wire barriers along its border with Austria in August 1989.^[104] Word spread rapidly to East Germany, where thousands seeking freedom poured into Hungary.^[104] Hungary ignored Stasi threats regarding closure of the border.^[104] Thereafter, the battle was effectively lost, with East Germany beginning the dismantling of the Berlin Wall months later.^[104]

Before German unification, the last East German government ordered the burning of thousands of Stasi computer records to attempt to protect against later prosecution.^[105] In addition, they shredded thousands of espionage files and placed the remains in 172,000 paper sacks.^[105] Examination of what remains of the vast Stasi files is difficult because of their enormous size.^[105]

In the first three years after the October 3, 1990 German reunification, large numbers of sensational arrests of Stasi infiltrators throughout the former West German government occurred weekly.^[106] It became clear that the entire West German government had been infested by the East German spy organization, as was every political party, West Germany's industry, banks, the church, and the news media.^[106] One female Stasi mole in the BND, an East German agent for seventeen years, had been entrusted with the job of preparing the daily secret intelligence summary for West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl.^[106] Stasi archivists estimate that at least 20,000 West Germans had spied for the Stasi and that that estimate may be conservative.^[106] After German reunification, the examination by former targets of their Stasi files led to countless civil suits being filed against informers, with large numbers of family and friend relationship destroyed.^[107]

Notes

References

• {{Citation|last=Beschloss|first=Michael R|title=The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2003|isbn=0-7432-6085-6}}
• {{Citation|last1=Berthon|first1=Simon|first2=Joanna|last2=Potts|title=Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War II Through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=2007|isbn=0-306-81538-9}}
• {{Citation|last1=Bideleux|first1=Robert|last2=Jeffries|first2=Ian|title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=0-415-36626-7}}
• {{Citation|last=Böcker|first=Anita|title=Regulation of Migration: International Experiences|publisher=Het Spinhuis|year=1998|isbn=90-5589-095-2}}
• {{Citation|last=Brackman|first=Roman|title=The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life|publisher=Frank Cass Publishers|year=2001|isbn=0-7146-5050-1}}
• {{Citation|last=Cook|first=Bernard A.|title=Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=0-8153-4057-5}}
• {{Citation|last=Crampton|first=R. J.|title=Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-415-16422-2}}
• {{Citation|last=Dale|first=Gareth|title=Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945–1989: Judgements on the Street|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0714654086}}
• {{Citation|last=Deletant|first=Dennis|title=Ceauşescu and the Securitate: coercion and dissent in Romania, 1965–1989|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=1995|isbn=1-56324-633-3}}
• {{Citation|last=Dowty|first=Alan|title=Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1989|isbn=0-300-04498-4}}
• {{Citation|last=Ericson|first=Edward E.|title=Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1999 |isbn=0-275-96337-3}}
• {{Citation|last=Frucht|first=Richard C. |title=Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|year=2003|isbn=0-203-80109-1}}
• {{Citation|last=Gaddis|first=John Lewis|title=The Cold War: A New History|year=2005|publisher=Penguin Press|isbn=1-59420-062-9}}
• {{Citation|last=Goertz|first=Gary|title=Contexts of International Politics|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-46972-4}}
• {{Citation|last=Gorodetsky|first=Gabriel|title=Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2001|isbn=0300084595}}
• {{Citation|last=Graubard|first=Stephen R.|title=Eastern Europe, Central Europe, Europe|publisher=Westview Press|year=1991|isbn=0-8133-1189-6}}
• {{Citation|last=Grenville|first=John Ashley Soames|title=A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0-415-28954-8}}
• {{Citation|last1=Grenville|first1=John Ashley Soames|last2=Wasserstein|first2=Bernard|title=The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=0-415-23798-X}}
• {{Citation|last1=Grogin|first=Robert C.|title=Natural Enemies: The United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917–1991|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2001|isbn=0-7391-0160-9}}
• {{Citation|last=Gross|first=Jan|chapter=War as Revolution|editor1-last=Gibianskii|editor1-first=Leonid|editor2-last=Naimark|editor2-first=Norman|title=The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 |year=1997|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=0-8133-3534-5}}
• {{Citation|last1=Hardt|first1=John Pearce|last2=Kaufman|first2=Richard F.|title=East-Central European Economies in Transition|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=1995|isbn=1-56324-612-0}}
• {{Citation|last=Harrison|first=Hope Millard|title=Driving the Soviets Up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953–1961|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-691-09678-3}}
• {{Citation|last=Koehler|first=John O.|title=Stasi: the untold story of the East German secret police|publisher=Westview Press|year=2000|isbn=0-8133-3744-5}}
• {{Citation|last=Krasnov|first=Vladislav|title=Soviet Defectors: The KGB Wanted List|publisher=Hoover Press|year=1985|isbn=0-8179-8231-0}}
• {{Citation|last=Laqueur|first=Walter |title=The dream that failed: reflections on the Soviet Union|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1994|isbn=0-19-510282-7}}
• {{Citation|first1=Leslie|last1=Lipschitz|first2=Donogh|last2=McDonald|title=German unification: economic issues|publisher=International Monetary Fund|year=1990|isbn=1-55775-200-1}}
• {{Citation|last=Lukacs|first=John|title=June 1941: Hitler and Stalin|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-300-11437-0}}
• {{Citation|last=Micgiel|first=John|chapter="Bandits and Reactionaries": The Suppression of the Opposition in Poland, 1944–1946|editor1-last=Gibianskii|editor1-first=Leonid|editor2-last=Naimark|editor2-first=Norman|title=The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 |year=1997|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=0-8133-3534-5}}
• {{Citation|last=Miller|first=Roger Gene|title=To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-89096-967-1}}
• {{Citation|last1=Murray|first1=Williamson|last2=Millett|first2=Allan|title=A War to be Won: Fighting the Second World War|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2001|isbn=0-674-00680-1}}
• {{Citation|last=Navrátil|first=Jaromír|title=The Prague Spring 1968: A National Security Archive Document Reader (National Security Archive Cold War Readers) | publisher = Central European University Press|year = 2006|isbn=963-7326-67-7}}
• {{Citation|last1=Nekrich|first1=Aleksandr Moiseevich|last2=Ulam|first2=Adam Bruno|last3=Freeze|first3=Gregory L.|title=Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German–Soviet Relations, 1922–1941|publisher=Columbia University Press|year=1997|isbn=0-231-10676-9}}
• {{Citation|last=O'Connor|first=Kevin|title=The history of the Baltic States|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2003|isbn=0-313-32355-0}}
• {{Citation|last=O'Neil|first=Patrick|title=Post-communism and the Media in Eastern Europe|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-7146-4765-9}}
• {{Citation|last=Olsen|first=Neil|title=Albania|publisher=Oxfam|year=2000|isbn=0-85598-432-5}}
• {{Citation|last=Overy|first=R. J.|title=The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|year=2004|isbn=0-393-02030-4}}
• {{Citation|last=Pearson|first=Raymond|title=The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire|publisher=Macmillan|year=1998|isbn=0-312-17407-1}}
• {{Citation|last=Philipsen|first=Dirk|title=We were the people: voices from East Germany's revolutionary autumn of 1989 |publisher=Duke University Press|year=1993|isbn=0-8223-1294-8}}
• {{Citation|last1=Pollack|first1=Detlef|last2=Wielgohs|first2=Jan|title=Dissent and Opposition in Communist Eastern Europe: Origins of Civil Society and Democratic Transition|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|year=2004|isbn=0-7546-3790-5}}
• {{Citation|last=Puddington|first=Arch| title= Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty|publisher= University Press of Kentucky|year= 2003|isbn=0-8131-9045-2}}
• {{Citation|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey |title=Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-300-11204-1}}
• {{Citation|last=Roberts|first=Geoffrey|title=Stalin, the Pact with Nazi Germany, and the Origins of Postwar Soviet Diplomatic Historiography|year=2002|volume=4|issue=4}}
• {{Citation|last=Roht-Arriaza|first=Naomi|title=Impunity and human rights in international law and practice|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-19-508136-6}}
• {{Citation|last=Saxonberg|first=Steven|title=The Fall: A Comparative Study of the End of Communism in Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary and Poland|publisher=Routledge|year= 2001|isbn=90-5823-097-X}}
• {{Citation|last=Sharman|first=Jason Campbell |title=Repression and Resistance in Communist Europe|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=0-415-30669-8}}
• {{Citation|last=Shirer|first=William L.|title=The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1990|isbn=0-671-72868-7}}
• {{Citation|last1=Teichova|first1=Alice|first2=Herbert|last2=Matis|title=Nation, State, and the Economy in History|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|isbn=0-521-79278-9}}
• {{Citation|last=Turner|first=Henry Ashby|title=The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1987|isbn=0-300-03865-8}}
• {{Citation|last=Turnock|first=David|title=The East European economy in context: communism and transition|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn= 0-415-08626-4}}
• {{Citation|last=Wegner|first=Bernd|title=From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939–1941|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=1997 |isbn=1-57181-882-0}}
• {{Citation|last=Weinberg|first=Gerhard L.|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-521-55879-4}}
• {{Citation|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|isbn=0-7425-5542-9}}
• {{Citation|last=Williams|first=Kieran|title=The Prague Spring and its Aftermath: Czechoslovak Politics, 1968–1970|publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=1997|isbn=0-521-58803-0}}

• John Hartley (poet)
• John Hartley (tennis)
• John Hartley (tennis player)
• John Hartman
• John Hartman Morgan
• John Hart (premier)
• John Hart (rugby)
• John Hart (rugby coach)
• John Hart (soldier)
• John Hart (South Australian colonist)
• John Hart Terry
• John Hartwell Marable
• John Harty
• John Harvard (Manitoba politician)
• John Harvey
• John Harvey (actor)
• John Harvey (author)
• John Harvey (British Army officer)
• John Harvey (British politician)
• John Harvey (Colonel)
• John Harvey (cricketer)
• John Harvey (disambiguation)
• John Harvey Kellog
• John Harvey (Naval officer)
• John Harvey (Newfoundland politician)

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。