“Indo-Pakistani Sign Language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Indian deaf population of 1.1 million is 98% illiterate{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}. In line with oralist philosophy, deaf schools attempt early intervention with hearing aids etc., but these are largely dysfunctional in an impoverished society. As of 1986, only 2% of deaf children attended school. {{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

Pakistan has a deaf population of 0.24 million, which is approximately 7.4% of the overall disabled population in the country.^[5]

Status of sign language

Unlike American Sign Language (ASL) and sign languages of European countries, ISL is in rudimentary stage of its development. The Deaf communities of India are still struggling for ISL to gain the status of sign language as a minority language. Though sign language is used by many deaf people in India, it is not used officially in schools for teaching purposes.In 2005, India the National Curricular Framework (NCF) gave some degree of legitimacy to sign language education, by hinting that sign languages may qualify as an optional third language choice for hearing students. NCERT in March 2006 launched a class III text includes a chapter on sign language, emphasising the fact that it is a language like any other and is "yet another mode of communication." The aim was to create healthy attitudes towards the differently abled.

Many efforts have been made by the Deaf communities, NGO's, researchers and other organisations working for deaf people, including All India Federation of Deaf (AIFD), National association of the Deaf (NAD) in the direction of encouraging ISL.Until 2001, no formal classes for teaching ISL were conducted in India. During this period, Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Hearing Handicapped (AYJNIHH), Mumbai, established ISL cell. It started a course "Diploma in Sign Language Interpreter Course". The curriculum designed for the course aims to develop professional communicative competence in Sign language and ability to interpret professionally. It also focused on the basic understanding of Deaf community and Deaf culture. Later, the course was offered in the regional centres in Hyderabad, Bhuvaneshwar, Kolkata and Delhi.

Besides AYJNIHH, organisations like Mook Badhir Sangathan in Indore and several other organisations are offering ISL classes. Many NGO's all over the India use ISL to teach English and various academic and vocational courses. These include ISHARA, Mumbai; Deaf Way Foundation, Delhi; Noida Deaf Society; Leadership Education Empowerment of Deaf (LEED), Pune; Speaking Hands Institute for the Deaf, Punjab, etc. (Randhawa, 2014) . The associations like Association of Sign Language Interpreters (ASLI) and Indian Sign Language Interpreters Association (ISLIA) were established in 2006 and 2008 respectively for the professional development of Interpreters in India.

The two schools have been established in India which is following bilingual approach to teach deaf students. One is Bajaj Institute of Learning (BIL) in Dehradun and the other is Mook Badhir Sangathan in Indore.

Apart from the establishment of organisations working for Deaf people there has been a spurt in research on sign language in India. Recent additions are the research studies by research scholars of Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) and University of Delhi including Wallang, 2007 ; Sinha,2003,2008/2013 ; Hidam,2010 ; Kulsheshtra, 2013 . There is also work on problems and awareness of ISL and typology of ISL verbs (Morgan 2009,2010) . Apart from these there have been continued works by scholars on linguistic aspects of ISL as well as on varieties of ISL (Bhattacharya and Hidam 2010, Aboh, Pfau, and Zeshan 2005, Zeshan and Panda 2011, Panda 2011, Panda 2012).

The earnest step taken by the Government of India to promote sign language was establishment of the ISLRTC. However, currently the autonomy of the Research centre is a contentious issue, yet to be resolved.

Varieties

There are many varieties of sign language in the region, including many pockets of home sign and local sign languages, such as Ghandruk Sign Language, Jhankot Sign Language, and Jumla Sign Language in Nepal, and Alipur Sign Language in India, which appear to be language isolates. There are also various Sri Lankan sign languages which may not even be related to each other. However, the urban varieties of India, Pakistan, Nepal (Nepalese Sign Language), and Bangladesh are clearly related (although, for Nepalese Sign Language at least, it is not clear whether the relation is genetic, or perhaps rather one of borrowing compounded by extensive incorporation of a shared South Asian gestural base). There is disagreement whether these related varieties should be considered separate languages.

While the sign system in ISL appears to be largely indigenous, elements in ISL are derived from British Sign Language. For example, most ISL signers nowadays use fingerspelling based on British Sign Language fingerspelling, with only isolated groups using an indigenous devanagari-based fingerspelling system (for example, Deaf students and graduates of the school for the deaf in Vadodara/Baroda, Gujarat). In addition, more recently contact with foreign Deaf has resulted in rather extensive borrowing from International Signs and (either directly or via International Signs) from American Sign Language. A small number of the Deaf in and around Bengaluru are often said to use American Sign Language (owing to a longstanding ASL deaf school there); however it is probably more correct to say that they use a lexicon based largely on ASL (or Signed English), while incorporating also a not inconsequential ISL element. Furthermore, regardless of the individual signs used, the grammar used is clearly ISL and not ASL.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}

The Delhi Association for the Deaf is reportedly working with Jawaharlal Nehru University to identify a standard sign language for India.^[10]

History

Early history

Although discussion of sign languages and the lives of deaf people is extremely rare in the history of South Asian literature, there are a few references to deaf people and gestural communication in texts dating from antiquity.^[11] Symbolic hand gestures known as mudras have been employed in religious contexts in Hinduism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism for many centuries, although these religious traditions have often excluded deaf people from participation in ritual or religious membership.^[12] In addition, classical Indian dance and theatre often employs stylised hand gestures with particular meanings.^[13]

An early reference to gestures used by deaf people for communication appears in a 12th-century Islamic legal commentary, the Hidayah. In the influential text, deaf (or "dumb") people have legal standing in areas such as bequests, marriage, divorce and financial transactions, if they communicate habitually with intelligible signs.^[14]

Early in the 20th century, a high incidence of deafness was observed among communities of the Naga hills. As has happened elsewhere in such circumstances (see, for example, Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language), a village sign language had emerged and was used by both deaf and hearing members of the community. Ethnologist and political officer John Henry Hutton wrote:

However, it is unlikely that any of these sign systems are related to modern IPSL, and deaf people were largely treated as social outcasts throughout South Asian history.

Residential deaf schools

Documented deaf education began with welfare services, mission schools and orphanages from the 1830s, and "initially worked with locally-devised gestural or signed communication, sometimes with simultaneous speech."^[16] Later in the 19th century, residential deaf schools were established, and they tended (increasingly) to adopt an oralist approach over the use of sign language in the classroom. These schools included The Bombay Institution for Deaf-Mutes, which was founded by Bishop Leo Meurin in the 1880s,^[17] and schools in Madras^[18] and Calcutta^[19] which opened in the 1890s. Other residential schools soon followed, such as the "School for Deaf and Dumb Boys" at Mysore, founded in 1902,^[20] a school in Dehiwala in what is now Sri Lanka, founded in 1913,^[21] and "The Ida Rieu School for blind, deaf, dumb and other defective children", founded in 1923 in Karachi, in what is now Pakistan.^[22]

While a few students who were unable to learn via the oralist method were taught with signs, many students preferred to communicate with each other via sign language, sometimes to the frustration of their teachers. The first study of the sign language of these children, which is almost certainly related to modern IPSL, was in 1928 by British teacher H. C. Banerjee. She visited three residential schools for deaf children, at Dacca, Barisal and Calcutta, observing that "in all these schools the teachers have discouraged the growth of the sign language, which in spite of this official disapproval, has grown and flourished."^[23] She compared sign vocabularies at the different schools and described the signs in words in an appendix.

A rare case of a public event conducted in sign language was reported by a mission in Palayamkottai in 1906: "Our services for the Deaf are chiefly in the sign language, in which all can join alike, whether learning Tamil, as those do who belong to the Madras Presidency, or English, which is taught to those coming from other parts."^[24]

Grammar

Despite the common assumption that Indian Sign Language is the manual representation of spoken English or Hindi, it is in fact unrelated to either language and has its own grammar. Zeshan (2014) discusses three aspects of ISL: its lexicon, syntax and spatial grammar. Some distinct features of ISL that differ from other sign languages include:

1) Number Signs: The numbers from zero to nine are formed in ISL by holding up a hand with the appropriate handshape for each number. From one to five the corresponding number of extended fingers forms the numeral sign, whereas for zero and the numbers from six to nine special handshapes are used that derive from written numbers. Ten may either be expressed by two 5-hands or by ‘1+0’. (Zeshan, 2000)

2) Family Relationship: The signs for family relationship are preceded by the sign for ‘male/man’ and ‘female/woman’.

3) Sign families: Several signs belong to same family if they share one or more parameters including handshapes, place of articulation and movement.

4) The ISL consists of various non-manual gestures including mouth pattern, mouth gesture, facial expression, body posture, head position and eye gaze (Zeshan, 2001)

5) There is no temporal inflection in ISL. The past, present and future is depicted by using signs for before, then, and after.

6) The question words like WHAT, WHERE, WHICH, HOW etc. are placed at the end of interrogative sentences.

Popular culture

References

1. ^The estimate of 5.9 million from Ethnologue 18's reference, IMB, is the number of deaf people.
2. ^{{cite journal|author=Vasishta, M., J. C. Woodward, and K. L. Wilson|year=1978|title=Sign Language in India: Regional Variation within the Deaf Population|journal=Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics|volume=4|issue=2|pages=66–74}}
3. ^Ethnologue gives the signing population in India as 2,680,000 in 2003.
{{cite book|author = Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.)|year = 2005|title = Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition.|publisher = Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.|url = http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ins}}
4. ^¹{{cite book| author = Ulrike Zeshan| title = Sign Language of Indo-Pakistan: A description of a Signed Language| publisher = John Benjamins Publishing Co| location = Philadelphia, Amsterdam| year = 2000 }}
5. ^Pakistan Sign Language – A Synopsis {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315001919/http://www.amic.org.sg/ict/external/awards/0202a2_l59attachment2.pdf |date=15 March 2012 }}
6. ^{{cite book|author = Dilip Deshmukh|title = Sign Language and Bilingualism in Deaf Education,|location = Ichalkaranji,|year = 1996}}
7. ^{{cite journal| last= Woodward| first= J| year = 1993| title = The relationship of sign language varieties in India, Pakistan and Nepal| journal= Sign Language Studies| issue= 78| pages= 15–22}}
8. ^{{citation |chapter= Indian Sign Language|title= Ethnologue|edition= 19|date= 2016|accessdate= 23 October 2016|publisher= SIL International|url= http://www.ethnologue.com/language/ins}}
9. ^{{cite journal|last1= Johnson|first1= Russell J.|last2= Johnson|first2= Jane E.|year= 2016|title= Distinction between West Bengal Sign Language, and Indian Sign Language Based on Statistical Assessment|journal= Sign Language Studies|volume= 16|issue= 4|url= http://gupress.gallaudet.edu/SLS/SLS16-4.html#bengalsl}}
10. ^{{cite web|title = Standard sign language for the deaf in India soon|url = http://www.deaftoday.com/v3/archives/2004/09/standard_sign_l.html|location = New Delhi,|publisher = Hindustan Times|date = 16 September 2004|agency=Press Trust of India|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216074932/http://www.deaftoday.com/v3/archives/2004/09/standard_sign_l.html|archivedate=16 February 2012}}
11. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/bibweb/Miles/Miles.html |accessdate = 6 May 2007 |year = 2001 |author = M. Miles |title = Sign, Gesture & Deafness in South Asian & South-West Asian Histories: a bibliography with annotation and excerpts from India; also from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Burma / Myanmar, Iraq, Nepal, Pakistan, Persia / Iran, & Sri Lanka. |deadurl = yes |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070427170750/http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/bibweb/Miles/Miles.html |archivedate = 27 April 2007 |df = dmy-all}}
12. ^Scholar of Oriental studies H. W. Bailey identifies passages in the Avesta (Yast 5.93) and the Vinaya, e.g. "Excluded from the Buddhist Theravāda community (sangha-) were the andha-, mUga-, and badhira-, 'the blind, dumb, and deaf'." (Footnote: Pali Vinaya I, 91, 15)
{{cite journal|last=Bailey|first=H.W.|year=1961|title=Arya III|journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies|issue=24|pages=470–483|doi=10.1017/s0041977x00092181}}
13. ^{{cite book|author=Shukla, Hira Lal|year=1994|title=Semiotica Indica. Encyclopaedic dictionary of body-language in Indian art and culture. 2 vols|location=New Delhi|publisher=Aryan Books International}}
14. ^Vol. IV, Book LIII. {{cite book|author=Al-Marghinani|title=The Hedaya or Guide. A commentary on the Mussulman laws. 2nd edn. transl. Charles Hamilton, ed. Standish Grady|year=1870, reprint 1975, 4 vols in one|location=Lahore|publisher=Premier Book}}
15. ^{{cite book|authorlink=John Henry Hutton|first=John Henry|last=Hutton|year=1921|title=The Angami Nagas, with some notes on neighbouring tribes|location=London|publisher=MacMillan|pages=291–292}}
16. ^Miles, M. 2001, extended and updated 2006-04. "Signs of Development in Deaf South & South-West Asia: histories, cultural identities, resistance to cultural imperialism". This is a further revised, extended and updated version of a chapter first published in: Alison Callaway (ed) Deafness and Development, University of Bristol, Centre for Deaf Studies, 2001. Internet publication URL: http://www.independentliving.org/docs7/miles200604.html
17. ^Hull, Ernest R. (1913) Bombay Mission-History with a special study of the Padroado Question. Volume II 1858–1890. Bombay: Examiner Press
18. ^Report on Public Instruction in the Madras Presidency for 1892–93. Madras, 1893. (Report by D. Duncan).
19. ^Editorial (1895), "The deaf mutes in India". The Indian Magazine and Review, August 1895, pp. 436–38. (Quoting largely an article by Ernest J.D. Abraham, in The British Deaf-Mute, May 1895).
20. ^Iyer, A. Padmanabha (1938). "Modern Mysore, impression of a visitor". Trivandrum: Sridhara Printing House. pp 78–83
21. ^Smith, M. Saumarez (1915) "C.E.Z.M.S. Work among the Deaf in India & Ceylon". London: Church of England Zenana Mission Society. p. 13
22. ^Report on Public Instruction in the Bombay Presidency for the Year 1923–24. Bombay: Central Govt Press. 1925. (Report by M. Hesketh). p. 91
23. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Banerjee | first1 = H.C. | year = 1928 | title = The sign language of deaf-mutes | url = | journal = Indian Journal of Psychology | volume = 3 | issue = | pages = 69–87 }} (quote from p.70)
24. ^Swainson, Florence (1906). "Report of the Deaf and Dumb and Industrial School in connection with the Church of England Zenana Mission, Palamcottah, South India, for 1905". Palamcottah: Church Mission Press. p.9
25. ^Zeshan, U. (2003). "Indo-Pakistani Sign Language Grammar: A Typological Outline." Sign Language Studies 3:2, 157–212.