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词条 Environment of India
释义

  1. Features

     Biota    Geography  

  2. Issues

     Climate change 

  3. Conservation

     Protected areas  Policy and law   Renewable energy  

  4. Environmentalism

  5. Organisations

  6. See also

  7. Notes

  8. References

  9. Further reading

  10. External links

{{Use Indian English|date=September 2015}}{{use dmy dates|date=March 2016}}

The environment of India comprises some of the world's most biodiverse ecozones. The Deccan Traps, Gangetic Plains and the Himalayas are the major geographical features. The country faces different forms of pollution as its major environmental issue and is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change being a developing nation. India has laws protecting the environment and is one of the countries that signed the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change and each particular state forest departments plan and implement environmental policies throughout the country.

Features

Biota

{{Main|Wildlife of India}}

India has some of the world's most biodiverse ecozones—desert, high mountains, highlands, tropical and temperate forests, swamplands, plains, grasslands, areas surrounding rivers and an island archipelago. It hosts three biodiverse hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Himalayas and the Indo-Burma region. These hotspots have numerous endemic species.[2]

In 1992, around 7,43,534 km2 of land in the country was under forests and 92 percent of that belonged to the government. Only 22.7 percent was forested compared to the recommended 33 percent by the National Forest Policy Resolution (1952). Majority of it are broad-leaved deciduous trees which comprise one-sixth sal and one-tenth teak. Coniferous types are found in the northern high altitude regions and comprise pines, junipers and deodars.[3]

There are 350 species of mammals, 375 reptiles, 130 amphibians, 20,000 insects, 19000 fish[4] and 1200 species of birds in India. The Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger and leopard are the main predators; the country has the most species of cats than any other.{{sfn|Singh|Singh|Mohanka|2007|p=116–118}} Elephants, the Indian Rhinoceros and eight species of deer are also found.[5]

There are over 17000 species of flowering plants in India, which account for six percent of the total plant species in the world. India comprises seven percent of world's flora. Wide range of climatic conditions in India gave rise to rich variety of flora. India covers more than 45,000 species of flora, out of which several are endemic to the region. India is divided into eight main floristic regions: North-Western Himalayas, Eastern Himalayas, Assam, Indus plain, Ganga plain, the Deccan, the Malabar and the Andamans.{{sfn|Majid|2014|p=5.2}}

Geography

{{Main|Geography of India}}

India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, whose continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent. The country is situated north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of {{convert|3287263|km2|mi2|0}}.[6] India measures {{convert|3214|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from north to south and {{convert|2933|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from east to west. It has a land frontier of {{convert|15200|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and a coastline of {{convert|7517|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.

The Indian plate and Eurasia collided between 40 and 60 million years ago according to four observations, one being that there is no mammalian fossil record in India from around 50 million years ago.[8] On its way, the Indian plate passed over the Reunion hotspot which led to volcanic activity, thus forming the Deccan Traps. Its collision with the Eurasian plate led to the rise of the Himalayas and the continuous tectonic activity still makes it an earthquake prone area. The Gangetic plains were formed by the deposition of silt by the Ganga and its tributaries into the area between the Himalayas and the Vindhya range.[9] The rock formations can be divided into the Archaean, Proterozoic (Dharwar system), Cuddupah system, Vindhyan system, Gondwana system, The Deccan Traps, Tertiary system, Pleistocene period and recent formations.{{sfn|Majid|2014|p=2.3}}

The climate comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Given the size of India with the Himalayas, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, there is a great variation in temperature and precipitation distribution in the subcontinent.{{sfn|Majid|2014|pp=4.27, 4.15}} Based on the Köppen system, where the mean monthly temperature, mean monthly rainfall and mean annual rainfall are considered, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different microclimates. The Indian Meteorological Department divides the seasons into four: Winter (mid-December to mid-March), Summer (mid-March to May), Rainy (June to September), and Retreating Monsoon (October to mid-December).{{sfn|Majid|2014|pp=4.27, 4.15}}

Issues

{{Main|Environmental issues in India}}

Pollution is one of the main environmental issues in India.

  • Water pollution is a major concern in the country. The major sources of water pollution are domestic, industrial, agricultural and shipping waste waters.{{sfn|Singh|Singh|Mohanka|2007|pp=327}} The largest source of water pollution in India is untreated sewage. Other sources of pollution include agricultural runoff and unregulated small scale industry. Most rivers, lakes and surface water are polluted.
  • Land pollution: The main causes of soil (or land) pollution is soil erosion, excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, accumulation of solid and liquid waste, forest fires, and water-logging. It can be reduced by judicious use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides and treatment of effluents before being used for irrigation.{{sfn|Majid|2014|pp=17.23–17.24}} Due to increasing population and enhanced food grains consumption, more and more rain fed crop lands are brought under intensive cultivation by ground and surface water irrigation. The irrigated land is losing gradually its fertility by converting into saline alkali soil.
  • Air pollution in the country is another concern. A major source is the matter released by the combustion of fossil fuels. Airborne particles like soot, fumes and dust are potentially harmful depending on the pollutant's chemical and physical structure. They can affect climate and reduce scattering of solar radiation in the atmosphere.{{sfn|Singh|Singh|Mohanka|2007|pp=231–232, 300}}
  • Noise pollution: This can be defined as the state of discomfort or stress caused by unwanted high intensity sound. It increases in proportion to urbanisation and industrialisation.{{sfn|Majid|2014|pp=17.23–17.24}}

Climate change

{{Further|Effects of global warming on South Asia}}

Being a developing nation, India is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to its dependence on climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture and forestry.[10] Low per capita incomes and small public budgets also lead to low financial adaptive capacity.[10] The nation is vulnerable to the immediate socio-economic effects of climate change. A 2002 study indicated that the temperature over the country increased at around 0.57° per 100 years.[10]

Inadequate infrastructure also means that people are more exposed, and less resilient, to climate change. For example, as of 2015, only 124 million Indians were connected to a sewer and 297 million to a septic tank.[11] The remainder depend on pit latrines or open defecation, which creates major risks of waterborne disease during floods - which will become more frequent and severe with climate change. These risks are more severe in urban areas, where the higher density of people means that basic infrastructure options might not be adequate. Additionally, many Indian megacities are in floodplains and deltas, and will therefore be very exposed to climate hazards such as sea level rise, storm surges and cyclones.[12]

Although India still has low average incomes per person, the country is now the third largest emitter of greenhouse gas emissions after China and the USA. The central government has pledged to reduce the emission intensity of Gross Domestic Product by 20-25%, relative to 2005 levels, by 2020. India has also made major pledges to expand its renewable energy supply, enhance energy efficiency, build mass transit and other measures to reduce its emissions.[13] There is evidence that many of these climate actions could generate substantial benefits in addition to reducing India's carbon footprint. Many low-carbon measures are economically attractive, including more efficient air conditioners, parking demand management, gasification and vehicle performance standards.[14] Others offer social benefits: for example, Indian cities might see substantial improvements in air quality if the country were to promote renewable energy technologies instead of fossil fuels and walking/cycling/public transport instead of private vehicles.[15]

Conservation

{{Main|Conservation in India}}

Protected areas

{{Main|Protected areas of India}}

In 2009, around 4.8 percent of the total area of the country were designated as protected areas. That comprised 100 national parks, 514 sanctuaries, 41 conservation reserves and four community reserves.[18]

Policy and law

{{Main|Environmental policy of the Government of India}}In the Directive Principles of State Policy, Article 48 says "the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country"; Article 51-A states that "it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures."{{sfn|Singh|Singh|Mohanka|2007|p=116–118}}

India is one of the parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty. Prior to the CBD, India had different laws to govern the environment. The Indian Wildlife Protection Act 1972 protected the biodiversity. In addition to this act, the government passed the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 and Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act 1992 for control of biodiversity.[16]

Renewable energy

{{See also|Energy policy of India|}}{{Main article|Renewable energy in India}}

Renewable energy in India comes under the purview of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. India was the first country in the world to set up a ministry of non-conventional energy resources, in the early 1980s. Its cumulative grid interactive or grid tied renewable energy capacity (excluding large hydro) has reached 33.8 GW,[17] of which 66% comes from wind, while solar power contributes 4.59% along with biomass and hydro power.[18]

Environmentalism

In 1973, the government launched Project Tiger, a conservation program aimed at protecting the national animal, the tiger. Its population reached as low as 2000 in 1970. Human population growth, cultivation of forest land and mainly hunting were the key factors for this decline. Aided by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Indian conservationists were instrumental in getting the government to ban hunting and set aside national parks. Project Tiger further served as a model for protecting endangered species like the Indian elephant and rhinoceros.[19] Around that year, after a protest in a village by the locals against loggers sent by a company, by threatening to hug the trees, similar protests got triggered, collectively known as the Chipko Movement. In the same year, the National Committee for Environmental Protection and Control was formed; in 1980, a department for Environment and finally five years later the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change was formed. The environmentalist movement in India began with these incidents.[19] Historian Ramachandra Guha calls Medha Patkar as "the most celebrated environmental activist in contemporary India".[19] New age India is concerned about the air and water quality, several civil society groups such as Environmentalist Foundation of India have forged a successful community based conservation model to revive lakes across the country. [20]

Organisations

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change through its Department of Environment and the particular state forest departments plan and implement environmental policy in each state.[21][22] Some national-level environmental organisations (governmental and non-governmental) include:[23]

  • Advisory Board on Energy (ABE)
  • Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
  • Central Forestry Commission (CFC)
  • Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES)
  • Environmentalist Foundation of India (E.F.I)
  • Industrial Toxicology Research Centre (ITRC)
  • National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)
  • National Dairy Development Board
  • National Natural Resources Management System
  • National Wetland Management Committee
  • State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)
  • Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI)
  • Central Soil Salinity Research Institute

There are at least 85 widely diversified environmental organisations involved with environmental conservation and environmental education in Tamil Nadu.[24][25]

See also

{{Portal|Sustainable Development|Environment|Earth sciences|Ecology|India|Environment}}
  • Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
  • List of environmental issues
  • National Green Corps
  • Water in India

Notes

1. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VU69BAAAQBAJ|title=Faunal Heritage of Rajasthan, India: General Background and Ecology of Vertebrates|last=Sharma|first=B. K.|last2=Kulshreshtha|first2=Seema|last3=Rahmani|first3=Asad R.|date=2013-09-14|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461408000|page=482|language=en}}
2. ^  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109182255/http://www.teriin.org/biodiv/hotspot.htm|date=9 November 2005}}
3. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yUtagKhyt9MC|title=Geography of India|last=Nag|first=Prithvish|last2=Sengupta|first2=Smita|date=1992-01-01|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=9788170223849|page=79|language=en}}
4. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KlwjSnkh1EAC|title=A Treatise on Wildlife Conservation in India|last=Das|first=Chhanda|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Classique Books|isbn=9788187616221|page=65|language=en}}
5. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=R8Dre-MnncQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Wildlife Of India|date=2010-08-01|publisher=Har-Anand Publications|isbn=9788124109700|pages=17–22|language=en}}
6. ^{{cite web| title=India|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India|accessdate=17 July 2012}} Total area excludes disputed territories not under Indian control.
7. ^{{cite journal |author=Rowley DB |year=1996 |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~avouac/GE277/Rowley96.pdf |title=Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia: A review of stratigraphic data |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=145 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |accessdate=2007-03-31 |doi=10.1016/s0012-821x(96)00201-4 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061228205836/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~avouac/GE277/Rowley96.pdf |archivedate=28 December 2006 |df=dmy }}
8. ^{{Cite journal|last=Molnar|first=Peter|date=1986|title=Geological History and Structure of the Himalaya|url=http://www.colorado.edu/geolsci/faculty/molnarpdf/1986AmerSci.Geology-Himalaya.pdf|journal=American Scientist|volume=74|page=151|doi=|pmid=|access-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605135623/http://www.colorado.edu/GeolSci/faculty/molnarpdf/1986AmerSci.Geology-Himalaya.pdf|archive-date=5 June 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
9. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=xu-O9eNmQXMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PT17#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography|last=Sanyal|first=Sanjeev|date=2012-11-15|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=9788184756715|pages=17–18|language=en}}
10. ^1 2 {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=fvP-q_NSZUIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Climate Change and India: Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation|last=Shukla|first=P. R.|date=2003-01-01|publisher=Universities Press|isbn=9788173714719|pages=12, 13, 21|language=en}}
11. ^{{Cite web|url=https://washdata.org/data#!/ind|title=Joint Monitoring Programme|last=WHO and UNICEF|date=2015|website=washdata.org|language=en|access-date=2018-04-10}}
12. ^{{Cite journal|last=Cruz, RV, Harasawa H, Lal M, Wu S, Anokhin Y, Punsalmaa B, Honda Y, Jafari M, Li C, HuuNinh N|date=2007|title=Asia|url=https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10.html|journal=Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|volume=|pages=469–506|via=}}
13. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/PublishedDocuments/India%20First/INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC.pdf|title=India's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution: Working Towards Climate Justice|last=|first=|date=2015|website=|access-date=}}
14. ^{{Cite journal|last=Colenbrander|first=S|date=2017|title=Can low-carbon urban development be pro-poor? The case of Kolkata, India|journal=Environment and Urbanization|volume=29|pages=139–158|doi=10.1177/0956247816677775|url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/105982/8/0956247816677775.pdf}}
15. ^{{Cite journal|last=Guttikunda|first=SK|date=2014|title=Nature of air pollution, emission sources, and management in the Indian cities|url=|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=95|pages=501–510|via=}}
16. ^1 {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obbhCgAAQBAJ|title=Deliberating Environmental Policy in India: Participation and the Role of Advocacy|last=Ganguly|first=Sunayana|date=2015-11-06|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317592235|pages=58–59|language=en}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements/|title=Renewable energy achievements|accessdate=2 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301162808/http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements|archive-date=1 March 2012|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
18. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.renewindians.com/2013/02/indian-renewable-installed-capacity-has-reached-27.7GW.html|title=Indian Renewable Installed Capacity has reached 27.7GW - Renew India Campaign - solar photovoltaic, Indian Solar News, Indian Wind News, Indian Wind Market|website=www.renewindians.com|access-date=2016-04-30}}
19. ^1 2 {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQxSxT_yWwYC|title=How Much Should a Person Consume?: Environmentalism in India and the United States|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|date=2006-01-01|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520248038|pages=35, 54, 55, 59|language=en}}
20. ^{{Cite web | url=https://www.thebetterindia.com/99349/environmentalist-foundation-of-india-fundraiser/ | title=This Organisation Has Restored 39 Lakes in 10 Years. This Year, You Can Help Them Fight Drought!| date=2017-05-06}}
21. ^{{citation|title=About the Ministry |url=http://moef.nic.in/modules/about-the-ministry/introduction |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Government of India }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
22. ^{{citation |url=http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/projects.htm |title=Welcome To Department of Environment |year=2007 |publisher=Government of Tamil Nadu, Department of Environment |location=Chennai |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124015312/http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/projects.htm |archivedate=24 January 2010 |df=dmy }}
23. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6A2ZgqTbgVoC|title=Environmental Biology|publisher=Rastogi Publications|isbn=9788171337491|page=333|language=en}}
24. ^{{citation |title=Directory of Environmental Resource Persons in Tamil Nadu |publisher=ENVIS & World Wide Fund for Nature - India/Tamil Nadu State Office |location=Chennai |date=2008 |url=http://assets.wwfindia.org/downloads/directory_of_environmental_resource_persons_in_tamil_nadu.pdf }}
25. ^{{citation|url=http://tnenvis.nic.in/PDF/resource%20person.pdf |title=2nd source |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619093027/http://www.tnenvis.nic.in/PDF/resource%20person.pdf |archivedate=19 June 2009 |df=dmy }}

References

  • {{Cite book |ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bosmBAAAQBAJ |title=Geography of India |last=Majid |first=Husain |date=1 January 2014 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=9789351343578 }}
  • {{Cite book|ref=harv|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HTW6uvi8IQ0C|title=Forest Environment and Biodiversity|last=Singh|first=Mahesh Prasad|last2=Singh|first2=J. K.|last3=Mohanka|first3=Reena|date=2007-01-01|publisher=Daya Publishing House|isbn=9788170354215|language=en}}

Further reading

  • {{cite book|url=http://www.envfor.nic.in/mef/State%20of%20Environment%20Report_2009.pdf|title=State of Environment Report India - 2009|last=|first=|publisher=Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change : Government of India|year=2009|isbn=|location=|pages=|quote=|via=}}

External links

  • Ministry of Environment & Forests
{{Asia topic|Environment of}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Environment Of India}}

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