“Environment of Indonesia”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The environment of Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands scattered over both sides of the equator.^[1]^[2] Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity after Brazil.^[3]

Issues

Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.^[4] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanisation and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.^[4] Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of greenhouse gases.^[5] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.^[6]

Indonesia has a below average but slightly improving performance in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 107 out of 180 countries in 2016. This is also below average in the Asia Pacific region, behind Thailand but slightly ahead of China. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Indonesia performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are water resource management (128), environmental effects of fisheries (127) and forest management (109), followed closely by sanitation. Waste water treatment plans are expected to improve conditions a bit in the future. Indonesia performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in the area of climate and energy (41), mostly due to the excellent access to electricity, less so for CO2 emission levels from power production. Health impacts of environmental issues (78) and biodiversity and habitat (83) also ranks above average.^[7]^[8]

Climate Change

Indonesia is at serious risk from the projected effects of climate change. If emissions go unreduced, it is predicted that it will see an average temperature rise of around 1℃ by the middle of the century,^[9] 0.3℃ per decade.^[10] This amounts to almost double the frequency of extremely hot days (with temperatures above 35℃, 95°F) per year by 2030, a figure which is predicted to rise to nearly one in three days by the end of the century.^[11] Rising temperatures risk increasing the frequency and severity of draught and food shortages, as it will have (and already has already had) a serious impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons upon which the Indonesian agricultural system is based.^[10] It will also encourage diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria, and increases in wild-fires, which threaten the huge areas of rainforest in the country.^[10]

Climate change is having and will have further serious impact in the form of rising sea levels. As Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago state, at current rates, rising sea levels will result in 42 million Indonesian households over 2000 islands being at risk of submersion by the middle of this century.^[12] Over 60% of Indonesia’s population live in low-lying coastal areas, including Jakarta, which is particularly at risk, as 40% of the city is below sea-level and is rapidly subsiding, putting a huge number of people at risk of displacement.^[10]^[13]^[14]

All of this is likely to affect poorer communities the most. Over 50% of the population of Indonesia live on less than US$2 per day, and the poor will bear the brunt of the disastrous effects of climate change, including death, illness and displacement, “as they are typically the most vulnerable to the impacts of drought, floods, and landslides and pursue livelihoods that are highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors (i.e fisheries and forestry)”^[15]

Environmental policy and law

Treaties and international agreements

Domestic environmental laws

See also

References

1. ^{{cite news| title = Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonesia | date = 8 February 2012 | work = National Geographic Indonesia | url=http://nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2012/02/hanya-ada-13466-pulau-di-indonesia | language=Indonesian}}
2. ^"The Naming Procedures of Indonesia's Islands", Tenth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, New York, 31 July – 9 August 2012, United Nations Economic and Social Council
3. ^{{cite book|last=Brown|first=Lester R. | title =State of the World 1997: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society (14th edition) | publisher =W. W. Norton & Company | year=1997 | location=New York | page=7 | isbn=0-393-04008-9 }}
4. ^¹{{Cite journal |author=Jason R. Miller |title=Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population |publisher=TED Case Studies |date=30 January 1997 |url=http://www.american.edu/TED/orang.htm |accessdate=14 August 2007 |journal=— |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811041439/http://www.american.edu/TED/ORANG.HTM |archive-date=11 August 2007 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
5. ^{{cite news |last=Higgins |first=Andrew |title=A climate threat, rising from the soil | publisher=The Washington Post | url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/18/AR2009111804162.html |accessdate=11 December 2009 | date=19 November 2009}}
6. ^{{cite web |last=Massicot |first=Paul |title=Animal Info – Indonesia |publisher=Animal Info – Information on Endangered Mammals |url=http://www.animalinfo.org/country/indones.htm |accessdate=14 August 2007}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://epi.yale.edu/reports/2016-report|title=2016 Report|journal=EPI Report|publisher=Yale University|accessdate=17 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204021925/http://epi.yale.edu/reports/2016-report|archive-date=4 February 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}
8. ^EPI (2016): Indonesia
9. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.impactlab.org/map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=1981-2010&gmeas=change-from-hist&gyear=2080-2099&tab=global&gvar=tasmax-over-95F&gprob=0.5&grcp=rcp85|title=Impact Map {{!}} Climate Impact Lab|work=Climate Impact Lab|access-date=2018-11-18|language=en-US}}
10. ^¹²³Case, M., Ardiansyah, F., Spector, E. (2007) 'Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature', Report for the World Wildlife Foundation. http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf Accessed 18/11/2018
11. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.impactlab.org/map/#usmeas=absolute&usyear=1981-2010&gmeas=change-from-hist&gyear=2080-2099&tab=global&gvar=tasmax-over-95F&gprob=0.5&grcp=rcp85|title=Impact Map {{!}} Climate Impact Lab|work=Climate Impact Lab|access-date=2018-11-18|language=en-US}}
12. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/listeningpost/2017/11/climate-change-media-failing-171111074236129.html|title=Climate change: Is the media failing us?|website=www.aljazeera.com|access-date=2018-11-18}}
13. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/photography/indonesia-sinking-flooding-climate-change-environmental-destruction-photography-a8245601.html|title=Indonesia’s daily floods due to climate change and environmental destruction|work=The Independent|access-date=2018-11-18|language=en-GB}}
14. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/21/world/asia/jakarta-sinking-climate.html|title=Jakarta Is Sinking So Fast, It Could End Up Underwater|last=Kimmelman|first=Michael|access-date=2018-11-18|language=en}}
15. ^The World Bank (2011) Vulnerability, Risk Reduction, and Adaptation to Climate Change: Indonesia. p.2 http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf Accessed 18/11/2018