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词条 Erromintxela language
释义

  1. Name

  2. State of the language

  3. Literary production

  4. History

  5. Research

  6. Linguistic features

     Phonology  Morphology  Verb formation  Nouns  Time  Numerals  Adjectives and adverbs  Pronouns & demonstratives 

  7. Baudrimont's material

     Nouns  Verb system and pronouns 

  8. Connected examples

  9. Bibliography

  10. Notes

  11. External links

{{Infobox language
|name=Erromintxela
|nativename=
|states=Spain, France
|region=Basque Country
|speakers=500–1,000
|date=1997
|ref=[1]
|familycolor=Mixed
|family=mixed Basque–Romani
|nation=
|agency=
|iso3=emx
|glotto=erro1240
|glottorefname=Erromintxela
|notice=IPA
}}

Erromintxela ({{IPA-eu|eromintʃela|-|Erromintxela.ogg}}) is the distinctive language of a group of Romani living in the Basque Country, who also go by the name Erromintxela. It is sometimes called Basque Caló[2] or Errumantxela[3] in English; caló vasco, romaní vasco, or errominchela in Spanish; and euskado-rromani[4] or euskado-romani[5] in French. Although detailed accounts of the language date to the end of the 19th century, linguistic research began only in the 1990s.

The Erromintxela are the descendants of a 15th-century wave of Kalderash Roma, who entered the Basque Country via France.[6] Both ethnically and linguistically, they are distinct from the Caló-speaking Romani people in Spain and the Cascarot Romani people of the Northern Basque Country. Erromintxela is a mixed language (referred to as Para-Romani in Romani linguistics[3]), deriving most of its vocabulary from Kalderash Romani but using Basque grammar, similar to the way the Angloromani language of the Roma in England mixes Romani vocabulary and English grammar. The development of the mixed language was facilitated by the unusually-deep integration of the Erromintxela people into Basque society and the resultant bilingualism in Basque. The language is in decline; most of the perhaps 1000 remaining speakers live on the coast of Labourd and in the mountainous regions of Soule, Navarre, Gipuzkoa and Biscay.[7]

Name

The origin of the name Erromintxela is unclear and may be of relatively recent origin; Basque speakers had previously grouped the Erromintxela under more general terms for Romani such as ijitoak "Egyptians", ungrianok "Hungarians", or buhameak "Bohemians".[1] However, a number of authors believe it to be a Basque rendering of the French name romanichel or romané-michel,[3][8] a name attested primarily in the vicinity of the Pyrenees and in particular the Northern Basque Country.[8] Romanichel is in turn a French rendering of the Romani phrase Romani čel "Romani person".[9] Though now uncommon in France, it is found in the names of the British Ròmanichal[10] and the Scandinavian Romanisæl, all descendants, like the Erromintxela, of a group of Roma who had migrated to France.[11]

Early attestations of the name in Basque include Errama-itçéla, Erroumancel,[8][12] later errumanzel and erremaitzela.[13] The initial e- is the Basque prosthetic vowel,[8] which was added at a time that no Basque word was allowed to begin with an r-. The final -a is the absolutive case suffix, which is used when citing a name. If that etymology is correct, it is a rare case of a native Romani name for themselves (an endonym) being borrowed by another language.

The people identify themselves as ijitoak, Basque for "gypsies", but more specifically as Erromintxela, in contrast to the Caló Romani,[20] whom they refer to as the xango-gorriak, Basque for "red-legs".[1][7]

State of the language

There are currently an estimated 500 speakers in the Southern Basque Country in Spain, approximately 2% of a population of 21,000 Romanis, and another estimated 500 in France.[1] In Spain the remaining fluent speakers are elderly people mostly over the age of 80; some are equally fluent in Spanish, Basque, or Caló. Middle-aged Erromintxela are mostly passive bilinguals, and the youngest speak only Basque or Spanish. In the Northern Basque Country, however, the language is still being passed on to children.[7] The percentage of speakers among Spanish Erromintxela are higher than 2%, as large numbers of Caló-speaking Romanis moved to the Basque Country in the intense period of industrialisation in the 20th century.[14]

Literary production

To date, there has been little literary production in the language. The most notable works are a poem by Jon Mirande entitled "Kama-goli" in his 1997 anthology Orhoituz[15] and the 1999 novel Agirre zaharraren kartzelaldi berriak by Koldo Izagirre Urreaga with the main character using the language.[16]

History

The Erromintxela arrived in the Basque Country in the 15th century speaking Kalderash Romani. They integrated much more deeply into Basque society than other Romani groups. In the process, they acquired the Basque language and adopted aspects of Basque culture such as increased rights of women and important traditions such as bertsolaritza (extemporaneous poetic song) and pelota (the national Basque ballgame).[6][17] Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia suspect that the morphological and phonological similarities between Romani and Basque facilitated the adoption of Basque grammar by the bilingual Romanis.[6]

It appears that many Romanis chose to stay in the Basque Country to escape persecution elsewhere in Europe.[6][14] Nonetheless, even here they were not safe from persecution. For example, the Royal Council of Navarre in 1602 passed an edict to round up all "vagabonds" (meaning Romani), who were to be condemned to 6 years of galley duty.[13] By the 18th century however attitudes had changed, and the emphasis shifted towards integration. In 1780–1781 the Courts of Navarre passed Law 23, which called for "the authorities to take care of them, find them locations for settlement and honest occupations and ways of living..."[13]

Research

The oldest account of the language dates to 1855, when the French ethnographer Justin Cenac-Moncaut located the Erromintxela primarily in the Northern Basque Country. The oldest coherent Erromintxela text, a poem entitled Kama-goli, published by Basque writer Jon Mirande in a collection of Basque poetry, only dates to ca. 1960.[18]

Alexandre Baudrimont's 40-page study Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques français of 1862, the most extensive of the early accounts, covers both vocabulary and aspects of grammar. He worked with two female informants, a mother and her daughter from the Uhart-Mixe area near Saint-Palais, whom he describes as highly fluent. Unfortunately, he was only able to conduct a single session as the women were then told not to cooperate further for the fear of outsiders prying into the secrets of the Romani.[36] There is a certain degree of confusion in Baudrimont's publication—he himself states that he could not always be certain the correct forms were elicited. For example, most of the verb forms he tried to elicit lack the verbal -tu ending and appear to be participles.[36]

The French sociologist Victor de Rochas refers to the Romani in the Northern Basque Country speaking Basque, rather than French, in his 1876 Les Parias de France et d'Espagne (cagots et bohémiens). The Canon Jean-Baptiste Daranatz published a wordlist in the periodical Eskualdun Ona in 1906[19] and in 1921 Berraondo and Oyarbide carried out some research.[7] Although labelled gitano (Spanish for 'gypsy') or bohémien / gitan (French for 'gypsy'), some data can also be found in Azkue's 1905 dictionary and Pierre Lhande's 1926 dictionary, both of which list a number of words identifiable as Erromintxela.[7]

Little more was done until the late 20th century. In 1986 Federico Krutwig published a short article in the Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos entitled "Los gitanos vascos", with a short word list and a brief analysis of the language's morphology.[20] However, the most detailed research to date was carried out by Basque philologist Josune Muñoz and historian Elias Lopez de Mungia, who began their work in the Southern Basque Country in 1996 at the behest of the Romani organisation Kalé Dor Kayiko, with support from the Euskaltzaindia and the University of the Basque Country.[7] Kalé Dor Kayiko, who had been working to promote the Romani language, was alerted to the existence of Erromintxela in the 1990s through an article by the historian Alizia Stürtze, Agotak, juduak eta ijitoak Euskal Herrian "Agotes, Jews, and Gypsies in the Basque Country".[6] Kalé Dor Kayiko intends to continue research into the language, attitudes, identity, and history of the Erromintxela people in the less well researched provinces of Navarre and the Northern Basque Country.[6]

Linguistic features

The research by Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia has confirmed that Erromintxela is not derived from Caló, the mixed Spanish-Romani language spoken throughout Spain, but is instead based on Kalderash Romani and the Basque language.[7] The vocabulary appears to be almost exclusively Romani in origin; the grammar however, both morphology and syntax, derives from various Basque dialects.[7] Few traces appear to remain of Romani grammatical structures.[6] The language is incomprehensible to speakers of both Basque and of Caló.[7]

Typologically, Erromintxela displays the same features as the Basque dialects it derives its grammatical structures from. Its case marking follows the ergative–absolutive pattern where the subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case (which is unmarked), the same case being used for the direct object of a transitive verb. The subject of a transitive verb is marked with the ergative case. Similarly, auxiliary verbs agree with the subject and any direct object and indirect object present and verb forms are marked for allocutive (i.e. a marker is used to indicate the gender of the addressee).

Since both Erromintxela and Caló derive from Romani, many Erromintxela words are similar to Spanish Caló and Catalan Caló.

ErromintxelaCaló[21]RootMeaning
barovaró/baróbarólarge, big
dui(l)duidújtwo
guruniguruñígurumnicow
kani(a)casní, caníkhajníhen, chicken
latxo, latxulachó (fem. lachí)lačhógood
mandro(a)manró, marrómanróbread
nazaro, lazaronasaló (fem. nasalí)nasvalíbread
panin(a)pañípaníwater
pinro(a), pindru(a)pinrrópunrófoot
trin, triltrintrinthree
zitzai(a)chichaičičajlarge, big

Phonology

According to Baudrimont's description of 1862[22] and modern southern sources, Erromintxela appears to have, at maximum, the sound system below. Southern speakers appear not to have the rounded vowel {{IPA|/y/}} or the consonant {{IPA|/θ/}}, in line with north-south differences in Basque, and it is not clear if the northern distinction between {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}} also exists in the south.

Table of consonant phonemes of Erromintxela
LabialCoronalDorsalGlottal
BilabialLabio-
dental
Dental		Lamino-
dental		Apico-
alveolar		Post-
alveolar		PalatalVelar
Nasalm
{{IPA|/m/}}		n
{{IPA|/n/}}		ñ
{{IPA|/ɲ/}}
Plosive{{IPA>/p/}}{{IPA>/b/}}{{IPA>/t/}}{{IPA>/d/}}{{IPA>/k/}}{{IPA>/ɡ/}}
Affricatetz
{{IPA|/ts̻/}}		ts
{{IPA|/ts̺/}}		tx
{{IPA|/tʃ/}}
Fricativef
{{IPA|/f/}}
{{IPA|/θ/}}		z
{{IPA|/s̻/}}		s
{{IPA|/s̺/}}		x
{{IPA|/ʃ/}}		{{IPA>/x/}}{{IPA>/ɣ/}}{{IPA>/h/}}
Laterall
{{IPA|/l/}}		ll
{{IPA|/ʎ/}}
Rhotic Trillrr
{{IPA|/r/}}
Tapr
{{IPA|/ɾ/}}
 FrontBack
unrounded rounded
Close{{IPAslink>i}}({{IPAslink>y}}){{IPAslink>u}}
Close-mid{{IPAslink>e}}   {{IPAslink>o}}
Opena
{{IPAslink|a}}

Baudrimont uses a semi-phonetic system with the following diverging conventions:

BaudrimontuȣyΔΓχshtshz
IPA/y/}}/u/}}/j/}}/θ/}}/ɣ/}}/x/}}/ʃ/}}/tʃ/}}/z/}}

Morphology

Examples of morphological features in Erromintxela:[1][6][18][20][23]

ErromintxelaBasqueRootFunction in ErromintxelaExample
-a-aBasque -aabsolutive suffixphiria "the pot"
-ak-akBasque -akplural suffixsokak "overcoats"
-(a)n-(a)nBasque -(a)nlocative suffixkhertsiman "in the tavern"
-(a)z-(a)zBasque -(a)zinstrumental suffixjakaz "with fire"
-(e)k-(e)kBasque -(e)kergative suffixhire dui ankhai koloek "with your two black eyes"
-ena-enaBasque -enasuperlative suffixloloena "reddest"
-(e)ko(a)-(e)ko(a)Basque -(e)ko(a)local genitive suffixmuirako "of the mouth"
-(e)rak-(e)rat (Northern Basque)Basque -(e)ra(t)allative suffixtxaribelerak "to the bed"
-pen-penBasque -pen1 suffix denoting act or effect 2 under
-ra-raBasque -raallative suffixpenintinora "to the little stream"
-tu-tuBasque -tuverb forming suffixdekhatu "to see"
-tzea-tzeaBasque -tzeanominalizer
-tzen-t(z)enBasque -t(z)enimperfect suffixkherautzen "doing"

Verb formation

Most verbs have a Romani root plus the Basque verb forming suffix -tu. Examples of Erromintxela verbs are given below.[1][18][20] (Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use. Basque is included for comparison.)

ErromintxelaBasqueRomani[24]English translation
brikhindu[19]euria izanbrišíndto rain
burrinkatu[19]harrapatu(astaráv)to catch
dikelatu, dekhatu[18]ikusidikhávto see
erromitu (eŕomitu)[25]ezkonduto marry
gazinain kheautu[25]haur eginto give birth (lit. make a child)
goli kherautu, goli keautu[25]kantatu(gilábav)to sing (lit. make a song)
kamatu[18]maitatukamáv[26]to love
kerau, keau, kherautu,[18] keautu[20][25]eginkeráv1 to do, make 2 auxiliary[25]
kurratulan eginbutjí kerávto work
kurrautu {{angle bracket|kuŕautu}}[25]joto hit
kuti[18][25]begiratudikávto look
letu[18][25]hartulavto take
mahutu,[25] mautu[25]hilmu(da)rávto die, kill
mangatu[20][25]eskatumangávto ask for, beg
mukautu[25]bukatuto end
najin[25]bukatuto end
papira-keautu[25]idatzi(skirív, ramóv)to write (lit. make paper)
parrautu {{angle bracket|paŕautu}}[25]ebakito cut
pekatu[20][25]egosipakávto cook
pekhautu[18]erreto burn
piautu[20][25]edanpjavto drink
tarautu,[25] tazautu[25]itoto strangle
teilaitu[25]janxavto eat
tetxalitu, texalitu[25]ibilito walk
txanatu[20]jakinžanávto know
txiautu[25]to ram in, push in
txoratu,[20] xorkatu[25] {{angle bracket|s̃orkatu}}[23]lapurtu, ebatsičorávto steal
ufalitu[25]ihes eginto flee
xordo keautu[25]lapurtu, ebatsito steal (lit. "make theft")
zuautu[20][25]lo eginsovávto sleep

Most Erromintxela verbal inflections are virtually identical to those found in Basque dialects:

Erromintxela[18]Basque (Lapurdian)[27]Translation
ajinen duk[28]izanen dukyou will have
dekhatu nuenikusi nuenI saw it
dinatdiñatI am (familiar female addressee)
erantzi nauzkonerantzi nauzkanI had taken them off
...haizen hi...haizen hi...that you are
kamatu nuenmaitatu nuenI loved it
letu hindudanhartu hintudanYou (familiar) took me
nintzannintzanI was
pekhautzen ninaerretzen nauteThey are burning me
pekhautu nintzanerre nintzenI (intransitive) burnt
pekhautzen niagonerretzen niagonI (intransitive) was burning (female addressee)
tetxalitzen zanibiltzen zanI was going
zethorrenzetorrenIt came
zoazzoazYou go!

Negations are formed with na/nagi[19][20] (Romani na/níči); cf Basque ez/ezetz. The word for "yes" is ua[19] (Romani va); cf Basque bai/baietz.

Nouns

The majority of nouns have Romani roots, but frequently attested with Basque suffixes. The variation of nouns cited with or without a final -a is likely due to informants supplying them with or without the absolutive ending. (Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use.)

ErromintxelaBasqueRomani[24]Erromintxela translation
angi[29]ezti(avdžin)honey
ankhai[18]begi(jakh)eye
asinia[19]botila(fláša)bottle
balitxo[19]txerrikibaló "pig" plus a Basque suffixpork
barki[22][19]ardibakróewe, sheep
barkitxu,[6] barkotiñu,[19] barkixu (barkicho)[22]arkumebakró "sheep", plus Basque diminutive -txu, tiñulamb
barku[19]ardibakrósheep
basta,[22] baste[19][20]eskuvas(t)hand, arm
bato,[1] batu[19]aitadadfather
bedeio (bedeyo)[22]erle(daraši)bee
bliku[19]txerrifrom balikanó mas "pork"pig
bluiak[19]poliziak(policájcur)policemen
budar,[20] budara[19]atevudárdoor
burrinkatzea[19]harraptzeact of catching
dantzari[18]dantzari(Basque root)dancer
dibezi[18][25]egundjesday
duta[20][25]argiudút(natural) light
egaxi[19][20][25]gažía non-Romani woman
egaxo,[25] ogaxo,[20][25] egaxu[25]gažóa gaje, anyone not Romani
elakri,[20] ellakria[30]neska(til)raklígirl
elakri-lumia[19][23]woman of ill repute
eramaite[18]erama(i)tebringing
eratsa,[19][25] erhatsa,[25] erhatza,[19] erratsa (erratça)[22]ahate(goca)duck
erromi (eŕomi),[20][25] errumi,[23] errumia[19]senarrom1 husband 2 wedding[31]
erromiti, errumitia[19]emazteromníwife
erromniemazte, emakumeromníwoman, wife
erromitzea[20]eskontza(bjáv)wedding
erromitzeko (eŕomitzeko),[25] erromitzekoa[20]eraztun(angruští)(the) ring (lit. "the one to marry")
fula[25]kakakhulexcrement
futralo[19][25]eau-de-vie
gata[18][19][25]atorgadshirt
gazin[18][25]haurchild
giltizinia[25]giltza(čája)key
goani[19][20][25]zaldi(grast)horse
goia[19]lukainkagojsausage
goli[18][25]kantagilísong
grasnia,[19][23] gasnia,[23][25] grasmiña,[32] gra[20]zaldigras(t)horse
guru,[20] gurru {{angle bracket|guŕu}}[25]idigurúvox
guruni[20]behigurumnicow
gurutiño[19][23]txahalgurúv plus a Basque diminutive -tiñocalf (animal)
haize[18]haize(Basque root)wind
jak,[20] jaka,[19][23][25] zaka,[25] aka[20]sujagfire
jakes[23][25]gazta(királ)cheese
jera,[25][33] kera (kéra)[22]asto(esa)donkey
jero[25]burušeróhead
jeroko[25]burukoberet (lit. "of the head")
juiben,[23] juibena[19]galtzak(kálca)trousers
kalabera[19][25]buru(šeró)head. Compare Spanish calavera, "Skull"
kalleria {{angle bracket|kaĺeria}}[25]silverware. Compare Spanish quincallería, "hardware"
kalo,[25] kalu,[23] kalua[19]kafe(káfa)coffee
kalo-kasta[18]ijito-kastaroRomani borough
kamatze[18]maitatze< kamávloving
kangei,[19][25][33] kangey;[23] kangiria[22]elizakangeríchurch; Baudrimont glosses this "altar"
kani,[19] kania[23][25]oilokhajníhen, chicken
kaxta,[22][19][20][25] kasta (casta),[22] kaixta (kaïshta)[22]zurkaštwood, stick
kaxtain parruntzeko {{angle bracket|paŕuntzeko}}[25]aizkoraaxe
kher,[18] khe,[25] kere,[23][25] khere,[20] kerea[19]etxekherhouse
kereko-egaxia[19] {{angle bracket|kereko-egas̃ia}}[23]etxeko andrelady of the house
kereko-egaxoa {{angle bracket|kereko-egas̃oa}},[23] kereko-ogaxoa[19]etxeko jaunamaster of the house
ker-barna[25]gaztelu(koštola)castle
ker,[20] qer,[20] kera[19]asto(esa)donkey
kero, keru,[25] kerua[19]burušeróhead
khertsima[18][25]tabernatavern
kiala,[19][23][25] kilako[23][25]gaztakirálcheese
kilalo[25]cold air
kirkila[19][25]babarruna(fusúj)bean
konitza,[25] koanits,[25] koanitsa[19]saskikóžnicabasket
laia[19][23][25]jaunamister, sir
lajai,[25] olajai,[25] lakaia[19]apaiz(rašáj)priest
laphail,[23][25] lakhaia[23]apaiz(rašáj)priest
latzi,[19] latzia[18][23][25]gaunight
lona[19][23][25]gatzalonsalt
mahutzea,[20] mautzia[19]hiltzeamu(da)ráv (v.), plus the Basque nominalizing suffix -tzeakilling (see mahutu v.)
malabana[19][25]gantzu(thuló mas)lard
mandro,[18][25] mandroa[19]ogimanróbread
mangatzia[19]eskemangáv (v.), plus the Basque nominalizing suffix -tzeaact of begging
marrun[23] (maŕun)[25]senarhusband
mas,[20] maz,[20] maza,[25] masa[19] (māsa)[22]haragimasmeat
megazin,[25] megazina[19]haurchild
milleka[23] {{angle bracket|miĺeka}}[25]artocorn (maize)
milota[25]ogi(manró)bread
milotare-pekautzeko[25]labeoven
Mimakaro[23][25]Ama Birjinathe Blessed Virgin
miruni[23][25]emakumewoman
mitxai,[18][25] {{angle bracket|mits̃ai}}[23]alabačhajdaughter
mol,[18] mola[19][25]ardomolwine
mullon {{angle bracket|muĺon}},[19][25] mullu {{angle bracket|muĺu}}[25]mandomule
ñandro,[19][23][25] gnandro[25]arraultzanróegg
oxtaben,[25][29] oxtaban {{angle bracket|os̃taban}},[23] oxtabena[19]gartzelaastaripeprison
paba,[25] phabana,[23] pabana[19]sagarphabájapple
paba-mola[25]sagardocider (lit. apple-wine)
panin,[20][25] panina,[19][23] pañia[1]urpajíwater
panineko,[25] paninekoa[20]pitxer(the) jug (lit. one for water)
paninekoain burrinkatzeko {{angle bracket|buŕinkatzeko}}[25]net(?) (Lhande gives French filet)
paninbaru,[25] panin barua[20]ibai, itsaso(derjáv, márja)river, ocean (lit. big water)
panintino,[25] panin tiñua,[20] penintino[18]erreka(len)small stream (lit. small water)
pangua[6]larremeadow
panizua[19][23][25]artocorn (maize). Compare Spanish "panizo"
papin,[25] papina[19][23]antzarpapingoose
papira[25]paperpapíripaper
pindru, pindrua,[19][23][25] pindro,[18] prindo[25]hanka, oinpunrófoot
pindrotakoa[20]galtzakkálcatrousers (the one for the foot)
piri, piria[19][23][25]lapikopirísaucepan
pora[19][23][25]urdailaperstomach
potozi[25]diruzorrowallet
prindotako[25]galtzerdipinró (trousers)sock (lit. the one for the foot)
puxka (pushka)[22]armapuškagun, weapon
soka[18][19][23][25]gainekoovercoat
sumia[19]zupazumísoup
thazautzia[19]itotzetaslaráv (v.), plus the Basque nominalizing suffix -tzeaact of throttling
tekadi,[23][25] tekari[19][25]hatz(naj)finger
ternu[25]gazteyoung person
txai[18][25] {{angle bracket|ts̃ai}}[23]čhajyoung person of either gender
txaja[25]aza(šax)cabbage
txara[25]belarčargrass
txaripen,[20] txaribel[18]ohe(vodro)bed
txau,[25] xau[28]semečhavóson
txipa[6]izen(aláv)name
txiautu[25]ijitoa Romani person
txiautzia[19]?, plus the Basque nominalizing suffix -tzeaact of ramming in
txohi,[25] txoki[18]gonaskirt
txohipen,[25] txohipena[19]petty theft (lit. "under the skirt")
txor,[20] txora[19][25] {{angle bracket|ts̃ora}}[23]lapurčorthief
txuri,[20][25] txuria[19]aiztočhuríknife
xordo,[25] txorda[19][25] {{angle bracket|ts̃orda}}[23]lapurketačoripétheft
xukel[25] {{angle bracket|s̃ukel}},[23] txukel,[20] txukela[19][25] {{angle bracket|ts̃ukela}},[23] xukela (shȣkéla)[22]txakuržukéldog
xukelen-fula {{angle bracket|s̃ukelen-fula}},[23] txukelen fula[19]txakurren kakadogshit
xukel-tino keautzale[25]female dog (lit. "little dog maker")
zuautzeko,[25] zuautzekoa[20]estalki(the) bedcovers
zitzaia,[25] zitzai,[29] txitxai[25] {{angle bracket|ts̃its̃ai}},[23] txitxaia,[19] sitzaia (sitçaia)[22]katučičaj[21]cat
zume,[23][25] sume[25]zupazumísoup
zungulu,[23][25] sungulu,[25] sungulua[19]tabako(duháno)tobacco
zut,[20] zuta,[25] xut,[20] txuta,[25] txuta {{angle bracket|ts̃uta}}[19][23]esnethudmilk

Time

According to Baudrimot, the Erromintxela have adopted the Basque names of the months. Note that some of the Basque names represent pre-standardisation names of the months, e.g. August is Abuztua in Standard Basque rather than Agorrila.

ErromintxelaBasqueRomani[24]Erromintxela translation
Otarila[22]Urtarrila(januáro)January
Otxaila (Otshaïla)[22]Otsaila(februáro)February
Martxoa (Martshoa)[22]Martxoa(márto)March
Apirilia[22]Apirilia(aprílo)April
Maitza (Maïtça)[22]Maiatza(májo)May
Hekaña (Hékaña)[22]Ekaina(júni)June
Uztailla (Uçtaïlla)[22]Uztaila(júli)July
Agorilla[22]Agorrila(avgústo)August
Burula[22]Buruila(septémbro)September
Uria[22]Urria(októmbro)October
Azalua (Açalȣa)[22]Azaroa(novémbro)November
Abendua (Abendȣa)[22]Abendua(decémbro)December

Baudrimont claims that subdivisions of the year (apart from the months) are formed with the word breja (bréχa) "year": breja kinua "month" and breja kipia "week".[22]

Numerals

Numerals (Basque included for contrasting purposes):[1][18][20]

ErromintxelaBasqueRomani[24]Erromintxela translation
jek,[25] jeka,[20] eka,[20][25] jek (yek),[22] jet (yet)[22]batjékone
dui,[18][22][20] duil[22]bidújtwo
trin,[18][20] trin,[22] tril[22]hirutrínthree
higa[25]higa (variant form)(trín)three
estard[22]lauštarfour
pantxe,[20] pains,[22] olepanxi (olepanchi)[22]bostpanžfive

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are also mostly derived from Romani forms:[1][18][20]

ErromintxelaBasqueRomani[24]Erromintxela translation
baro,[18] baru[19][20]handibarólarge, big
bokali[20]gosebokhhungry
buter[20]asko, ainitzbutmuch, a lot
dibilo[20]dilinocrazy
dibilotua[18]erotua< dilino (adj.)gone crazy
gabe[18]gabe(Basque root)without
eta[18]eta(Basque root)and
fukar[29]ederrašukarbeautiful
geroz[18]geroz(Basque root)once
hautsi[18]hautsi(Basque root)broken
kalu[20]beltzkalóblack
kaxkani[25]zikoitzstingy
kilalo[19]hotzšilalócold
latxo,[25] latxu[20]onlačhógood
londo[18]samursoft
nazaro,[19][20][23][25] lazaro[25]erinasvalósick
palian[6]ondoannearby
parno[18]garbiparnó (white)clean
telian[20]beheantélaunder
tiñu,[20][23] tiñua[19]txikicignósmall
upre[18][20]gain(ean), goraopréon top, up

Pronouns & demonstratives

Pronouns are derived from both languages:[18][20]

ErromintxelaBasqueRomani[24]Erromintxela translation
aimenge[20]nimánge "me", possibly aménge "us" (dative forms)I
ene[18]ene(Basque root)my (affectionate)
harekin[18]harekin(Basque root)with it (distal)
hari[18]hari(Basque root)to you (familiar)
hartan[18]hartan(Basque root)in it (distal)
heure[18]heure(Basque root)your (familiar emphatic)
hi[18]hi(Basque root)you (familiar)
hire[18]hire(Basque root)your (familiar)
hiretzat[18]hiretzat(Basque root)for you (familiar)
mindroa[18]nireamirómy
neure[18]neure(Basque root)my (emphatic)
ni[18]ni(Basque root)I (intransitive)

Baudrimont's material

Much of Baudrimont's wordlist is easily related to other Erromintxela sources. However, some of the material collected by Baudrimont deserves a more detailed overview due to its peculiarities. Most of these relate to the verbs and verb forms he collected but some include nouns and other items.

Nouns

His material contains a relatively high number of Basque-derived items.

Erromintxela[22]BasqueRomani[24]Erromintxela translation
aitza (aitça)aritzoak
aizia (aicia)haize(diha)air
egalahegal(phak)wing
itxasoa (itshasoa)itsaso(derjáv)sea
keia (kéïa)ke(thuv)smoke
muxkera (mȣshkera)musker(gusturica)lizard
orratza (orratça)orratz(suv)needle (Basque orratz is "comb")
sudura (sȣdȣra)sudur(nakh)nose
ulia (ȣlia)euli(mačhin)fly (insect)
xuria (shȣria)(t)xori(čiriklí)bird

Certain items are peculiar. Baudrimont lists mintxa as "tooth". The Kalderash term is dand (daní in Caló) but the term given is immediately more reminiscent of Northern Basque mintzo "speech" or mintza "skin" (with expressive palatalization). This, and other similar items, raise the question of whether Baudrimont was simply pointing at items to elicit forms.

The forms he attempted to elicit are questionable in some cases as well. For example, he attempted to agricultural terms such as plough, harrow and aftermath from his (female) informants and records the suspiciously similar sasta "plough" and xatxa (shatsha) "harrow".

Verb system and pronouns

The verb systems and pronouns recorded by Baudrimont is peculiar in several ways. Apart from his problem of eliciting the citation form of verbs as opposed to participles, he lists pronouns and possessive pronouns that appear to contain Romani roots and an unexpected auxiliary.

The verb ajin for "to have" attested elsewhere although Basque derived forms appear more common overall. Kalderash Romani employs the 3rd person of "to be" and a dative pronoun to express ownership:

Erromintxela[22]Basque (allocutive forms)Romani[24]Erromintxela translation
mek ajin (mec aχin)
tuk ajin (tȣc aχin)
ojuak ajin (oχuac aχin)
buter ajin (bȣter aχin)
tuk ajin (tȣc aχin)
but ajin (bȣt aχin)		(nik) di(n)at
(hik) duk1/dun
(hark) dik/din
(guk) di(n)agu
(zuek) duzue
(haiek) ditek/diten		si ma
si tu
si les/la
si amé
si tumé
si len		I have
you have
he/she has
we have
you have
they have
mek najin (mec naχin)
tuk najin (tȣc naχin)
ojuak najin (oχuac naχin)
buter najin (bȣter naχin)
tuk najin (tȣc naχin)
but najin (bȣt naχin)		(nik) ez di(n)at
(hik) ez duk/dun
(hark) ez dik/din
(guk) ez di(n)agu
(zuek) ez duzue
(haiek) ez ditek/diten		naj/nané ma
naj/nané tu
naj/nané les/la
naj/nané amé
naj/nané tumé
naj/nané len		I don't have
you don't have
he/she doesn't have
we don't have
you don't have
they don't have
mek naxano (mec nashano)
tuk naxano (tȣc nashano)
ojuak naxano (oχuac nashano)
buter naxano (bȣter nashano)
tuk naxano (tȣc nashano)
but naxano (bȣt nashano)		(nik) izanen di(n)at
(hik) izanen duk/dun
(hark) izanen dik/din
(guk) izanen di(n)agu
(zuek) izanen duzue
(haiek) izanen ditek/diten		ka si ma
ka si tu
ka si les/la
ka si amé
ka si tumé
ka si len		I will have
you will have
he/she will have
we will have
you will have
they will have
1Note that forms like duk (3rd pers-have-2nd per (male)) are the verbal part whereas Erromintxela tuk is a pronoun.

The negative particle na is fairly clear in the forms above. Buter, as Baudrimont notes, is the word for "much, many" and may not be a true pronoun. Kalderash uses the accusative pronouns to express possession but the forms above are more reminiscent of wrongly parsed Kalderash dative forms mangé, tuké, léske, léke etc. and perhaps a different case of "to be" (the full Kalderash paradigm being sim, san, si, si, sam, san/sen, si).

On the whole, it raises questions about the level of communication between Baudrimont and his informants and the quality of (some of the) material elicited.

Connected examples

Examples with interlinear versions (lexical items of Romani origin marked in bold):

{{interlinear|glossing=wikilink|number=(1)


|khere-ko ogaxo-a
|house-ATTR master-ABS
|"the master of the house"[20]}}

{{interlinear|glossing=wikilink|number=(2)


|hire-tzat goli kerau-tze-n d-i-na-t
|your(informal)-BEN song make-NMZ-LOC ABS.3SG{gcl|PRE DAT|dative|Dative case}FEM.ALLOC-ERG.1SG
|"I sing for you."[18]
}}

{{interlinear|glossing=wikilink| ablist = COMP:comparative:comparative|number=(3)


|xau-a, goli keau za-k, mol buterr-ago aji-n-en d-u-k
|boy-ABS sing make have-ERG.FAM.MASC wine much-COMP have-PFV-FUT ABS.3SG-have-ERG.MASC.ALLOC
|"Boy, sing, you will have more wine!"[18]}}

{{interlinear|glossing=wikilink|number=(4)


|txipa nola d-u-zu?
|name how ABS.3SG-have-ERG.2SG
|"What is your name?"[7]}}

{{interlinear|glossing=wikilink|number=(5)


|masa-k eta barki-txu-ak pangu-an d-a-o-z
|meat-ABS.PL and sheep-DIM-ABS.PL meadow-LOC ABS.3SG-PRES-go-PL
|"The sheep and lambs are on the meadow."[7]}}

{{interlinear|glossing=wikilink| ablist = COMP:comparative:comparative|number=(6)


|nire kera zure-a-ren pali-an d-a-o, hemen-dik obeto-ao dika-tu-ko d-u-zu
|my house your-ABS-GEN proximity-LOC ABS.3SG-PRES-locate here-ABL better-COMP see-PFV-FUT ABS.3SG-have-ERG.2SG
|"My house is next to yours, you can see it better from here."[7]}}

Bibliography

  • Baudrimont, A. (1862) Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les Pays Basque Français Academie Impérial des Sciences, Bordeaux
  • Berraondo, R. (1921) La euskera de los gitanos in Euskalerriaren Alde - Revista de Cultura Vasca
  • Macritchie, D. (1886) Accounts Of The Gypsies Of India New Society Publications, New Delhi; 2007 Reprint {{ISBN|978-1-4067-5005-8}}
  • Michel, F. (1857) Le Pays Basque Paris

Notes

1. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Argüello, Xabier Ijito euskaldunen arrastoan El País (2008)
2. ^Ethnologue Languages of Spain Retrieved 3 July 2009.
3. ^1 2 Matras, Y. A Linguistic Introduction Cambridge University Press (2002) {{ISBN|0-521-63165-3}}
4. ^Langues d'Europe et de la Méditerranée (LEM) La langue rromani en Europe Retrieved 3 July 2009.
5. ^Lougarot, Nicole Bohémiens Gatuzain Argitaletxea: 2009 {{ISBN|2-913842-50-X}}
6. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Brea, Unai Hiretzat goli kherautzen dinat, erromeetako gazi mindroa Argia, San Sebastián (03-2008)
7. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Agirrezabal, Lore Erromintxela, euskal ijitoen hizkera Argia, San Sebastián (09-2003)
8. ^1 2 3 Macritchie, D. (1886) Accounts Of The Gypsies Of India New Society Publications, New Delhi; 2007 Reprint {{ISBN|978-1-4067-5005-8}}
9. ^Wood, M. (1973) In the Life of a Romany Gypsy Routledge {{ISBN|978-0-7100-7595-6}}
10. ^Council of Europe "Roma and Travellers Glossary" Retrieved 9 August 2009.
11. ^Hancock, I. (2001) A Glossary of Romani Terms, p. 182 in Weyrauch, W. Gypsy Law: Romani Legal Traditions and Culture University of California Press {{ISBN|978-0-520-22186-4}}
12. ^Mérimée, P. (1930) Lettres a Francisque Michel (1848-1870) & Journal de Prosper Mérimée (1860-1868) Paris, Librarie Ancienne Honoré Champion (pages 118-119)
13. ^1 2 Auñamendi Entziklopedia "Diccionario Auñamendi - Gitano" Retrieved 29 July 2009.
14. ^1 Plan Vasco para la promoción integral y participación social del pueblo gitano Basque Government (2005)
15. ^Urkizu, P. & Arkotxa, A. (1997) Jon Mirande Orhoituz - 1972-1997 - Antologia San Sebastián {{ISBN|978-84-7907-227-8}}
16. ^Cazenave, J. Koldo Izagirre Urreaga in the Auñamendi Entziklopedia   Retrieved 19 February 2010.
17. ^1 Vizarraga, Óscar Erromintxela: notas para una investigación sociolingüística in I Tchatchipen, Vol 33, Instituto Romanó, Barcelona (2001)
18. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Mirande, Jon Poemak 1950-1966 Erein, San Sebastián (1984)
19. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 Daranatz, Jean-Baptiste Les Bohémiens du Pays Basque Eskualdun Ona #38 (September 1906)
20. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 Federico Krutwig Sagredo Los gitanos vascos in Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos, Volume 31 (1986)
21. ^1 Adiego, I. Un vocabulario español-gitano del Marqués de Sentmenat (1697-1762) Ediciones Universitat de Barcelona 2002 {{ISBN|84-8338-333-0}}
22. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Baudrimont, A. (1862) [https://books.google.com/books?id=8xBXAAAAMAAJ Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques français] Academie Impériale des Sciences, Bordeaux
23. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Azkue, Resurrección María de (1905) Diccionario Vasco Español Frances repr. Bilbao 1984
24. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Heinschink, Mozes & Krasa, Daniel Romani Wort für Wort Kauderwelsch 2004
25. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 Lhande, Pierre Dictionnaire Basque-Français et Français-Basque Paris 1926
26. ^Compare Sanskrit kama as in Kama Sutra.
27. ^Laffitte, Pierre Grammaire Basque Pour Tous Haize Garbia, Hendaye 1981
28. ^1 Saizar, Joxemi & Asurmendi, Mikel Argota: Hitz-jario ezezagun hori Argia Nr 1704, San Sebastián (1999)
29. ^1 2 3 Izagirre, Koldo. Agirre Zaharraren Kartzelaldi Berriak. Elkar (1999) {{ISBN|84-8331-439-8}}
30. ^Mitxelena, Luis Diccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia VI Dag-Erd Euskaltzaindia, Bilbao (1992)
31. ^Mitxelena, Luis Diccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia VII Ere-Fa Euskaltzaindia, Bilbao (1992)
32. ^Mitxelena, Luis Diccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia VIII Fe-Gub Euskaltzaindia, Bilbao (1995)
33. ^1 Mitxelena, Luis Diccionario General Vasco - Orotariko Euskal Hiztegia X Jad-Kop Euskaltzaindia, Bilbao (1997)

External links

  • Kalé Dor Kayiko
  • Full version of the Erromintxela poem with Basque translation
  • Gitano in the Spanish-language Auñamendia Encyclopedia.
{{Languages of Spain}}{{Romani languages}}{{Romani diaspora}}{{Good article}}

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