“Etruscan origins”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

There are three main hypotheses as to the origins of the Etruscan civilization in the Early Iron Age. Autochthonous development in situ out of the Villanovan culture, as claimed by the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus who described the Etruscans as indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria.^[1] A migration from the Aegean sea, as claimed by a couple of Greek historians: Herodotus, who described them as a group of immigrants from Lydia in Anatolia,^[2] and Hellanicus of Lesbos who claimed that the Tyrrhenians were the Pelasgians originally from Thessaly, Greece, who entered Italy at the head of the Adriatic sea. ^[3] The third hypotheses is reported by Livy and Pliny the Elder, and puts the Etruscans in the context of the Rhaetian people to the north and other populations living in the Alps.^[4]

An autochthonous population that diverged genetically was suggested as a possibility by Cavalli-Sforza.^[5]

The latest mtDNA study (2013) suggests that the Etruscans appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations.^[8]^[9]

This coincides with the Rhaetic language, which was spoken north of the Alps in the area of the Urnfield culture of Central Europe. The Villanovan culture branched from the Urnfield culture around 1100 BC and thus Villanovan culture is ancestral to the Etruscan civilization.

Autochthonous origin (indigenous)

With this passage, Dionysius launched the autochthonous theory, that the core element of the Etruscans, who spoke the Etruscan language, were of "Terra (Earth) itself"; that is, on location for so long that they appeared to be the original or native inhabitants. They are therefore the owners of the Villanovan culture.^[11]

In 1942, the Italian historian Massimo Pallottino published a book entitled The Etruscans (which would be released in English in 1955). Pallottino presented various hypotheses that gained wide acceptance in the archeological community. He said "no one would dream of asking where Italians or Frenchmen came from originally; it is the formation of the Italian and French nations that we study." He meant that the formation process for Etruscan civilization took place in Etruria or nearby.^[14] Formulating a different point of view on the same evidence, Pallottino says:^[15]

Allochthonous origin

Certain Greek and Roman authors saw the presence of the Etruscans in Italy as a "historical problem", since they differed from the other civilizations in the area.

In Greco-Roman mythology, Aeneas (Greek: Αἰνείας, Aineías) was a Trojan hero, the son of prince Anchises and the goddess Venus. His father was also the second cousin of King Priam of Troy. The journey of Aeneas from Troy (led by Venus, his mother), which led to the founding of the city of Rome, is recounted in Virgil's Aeneid, where the historicity of the Aeneas legend is employed to flatter the Emperor Augustus. Romulus and Remus, appearing in Roman mythology as the traditional founders of Rome, were of Eastern origin: their grandfather Numitor and his brother Amulius were alleged to be descendants of fugitives from Troy.

The classical scholar Michael Grant commented on this story, writing that it "is based on erroneous etymologies, like many other traditions about the origins of 'fringe' peoples of the Greek world".^[18] Grant writes there is evidence that the Etruscans themselves spread it to make their trading easier in Asia Minor when many cities in Asia Minor, and the Etruscans themselves, were at war with the Greeks.^[19]

The French scholar Dominique Briquel also disputed the historical validity of Herodotus' text. Briquel demonstrated that "the story of an exodus from Lydia to Italy was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th century BC." ^[20]^[21] Briquel also commented that "the traditions handed down from the Greek authors on the origins of the Etruscan people are only the expression of the image that Etruscans' allies or adversaries wanted to divulge. For no reason, stories of this kind should be considered historical documents".^[22]

However, the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus objected that the Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) culture and language shared nothing with the Lydian. He stated:^[10]

"Sea peoples"

The Etruscans or Tyrrhenians may have been one of the sea peoples of the 14th–13th century BC,^[23] if Massimo Pallottino's assimilation of the Teresh of Egyptian inscriptions with Tyrrhenoi is correct.^[24] There is no further evidence to connect the Sea Peoples to the Etruscans: the Etruscan autonym Rasna, does not lend itself to the Tyrrhenian derivation.

Neither the Etruscan material culture or language has provided scholars with conclusive evidence regarding the Etruscans' origins. The language, which has been partly deciphered, has variants and representatives in inscriptions on Lemnos, in the Aegean, but these may have been created by travellers or Etruscan colonists, during the period before Rome destroyed Etruscan political and military power.

During the 6th to 5th centuries BC, the word "Tyrrhenians" was referred specifically to the Etruscans, for whom the Tyrrhenian Sea is named, according to Strabo.^[25] In Pindar, the Tyrsanoi appear grouped with the Carthaginians as a threat to Magna Graecia:^[26]

Differentiating between cultural origin and cultural influence

The origin of the civilisation of Etruria is an ancient debate, still currently disputed among scholars, because the terms in which historians have opened and contested theories have relied on out-dated conceptions of origin and culture. The last two millennia of raising inconclusive theories towards a definitive location for the origins of Etruria has led modern scholarship to diverge from traditional approaches to national origins and instead focus on the development of concepts, such as national origin and cultural formation, differentiating between cultural influence and cultural origin.

The initial sources of inquiry for historians studying Etruscan origins are the classical sources provided by ancient scholars such as Herodotus and Dionysius. These writers were naturally interested in where such an advanced civilisation originated. Herodotus initiated the Anatolian theory which told the story of Etruscan origins as a mass migration from Lydia, led by King Tyrsenos, a migration due to the famine experienced shortly after the Trojan War. Larissa Bonfante argues that the traditional concept of origin that classical Greek writers subscribed to "had to be explained as the result of a migration, under the leadership of a mythical founding hero".^[30] Valeria Forte furthermore has added that the travelling of heroic leaders to a foreign land is a "fixed narrative" used to "promote the political and cultural dominance of Eastern civilisations on Italic culture".^[31] The argument is that the "stereotypical images of a maritime immigration into Italy from the East", is a typical formula classical writers such as Herodotus applied without any historical investigation.^[31]

The second key hypothesis was launched by the Augustan historian, Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Being aware that his predecessors were "unanimous in stating that the Etruscans came from the East"^[32] he expressed an alternate hypothesis that the Etruscans were "native to the country",^[33] and by doing so opened the autochthonous theory. Scholarship has questioned why ancient sources appear "unanimous" towards an Anatolian origin. Bonfante suggests that it is the natural response for Greek writers to connect other civilisations accomplishments to "Greek heroes" in an attempt to promote a "glorified national narrative".^[31] On the other hand, R.S.P. Beekes argues that these ancient writers, especially Herodotus, found the famine in Lydia an obvious connection to the migration to Etruria, rather than a debatable area of discussion. The autochthonous theory that Dionysius instigated was a view held by Etruscans themselves, whom he consulted, though how much these Etruscans knew about their own origins is questionable.

The reason modern scholarship, such as John Bryan Perkins, sceptically uses ancient sources as evidence to support an argument, is because these sources generally promote a national image and harbour political prejudices. He argues that the ancient interpretation of Etruscan origins has derived from a "hostile tradition, of rivals and enemies; the Greeks and Romans". The extent of "classical prejudice" is exemplified in early records of the Etruscans. Classical literature typically portrayed Etruscans as 'pirates' and 'freebooters'. Massimo Pallottino points out that their reputation for piracy took shape between the time of Homer and the image shown in the Homeric Hymns, and was clearly a product of the intense commercial and territorial rivalry between the Etruscans and Greek traders. Consequentially Perkins concludes that ancient "standards of historical criticism were not ours" in which "a great deal of it is seen through a veil of interpretation, misunderstanding, and at times, plain invention".^[34] The ancient tendency to invent or apply a fabricated account within their historical record is evident in Herodotus' Histories. His use of fanciful story telling contributes to the overarching glorified narrative of Greece in the Persian wars and exemplifies the greatness of Greek conquest. This agenda is problematic when viewing his 'heroic' understanding of Etruscan origins, because Herodotus' stories tend to contribute to the national narrative rather than an intended historical record. His account is seen through, what Perkins refers to as, antiquity's "distorting mirror".^[34]

Valeria Forte admits to classical prejudice; however, she argues that political distortion has not ceased, yet rather contemporary "political propaganda and nationalist bias has infiltrated Italian archaeology".^[31] The modern historiography of Etruscan origins is not exempt from political distortion; Etruscology acknowledges that by attempting to answer where the Etruscans came from, consequentially they are shaping the Italian sense of identity. Pride is taken in being the sole connection to such an advanced civilisation. D. H. Lawrence concludes in his non-fictional research on Etruscan culture that "the present-day Italians were, in fact, much more Etruscan than Roman".^[35] Forte points out that Italians use Etruscan civilisation to "represent a model of cultural expression" within their national image.

In the 1950s, Professor Pallottino resurrected the initial autochthonous theory and by doing so contended with traditional scholarship that has "remained fixated on the idea that the origins of the Italic people were to be found in the effects of immigration from outside". The argument has been developed on the basis that the Etruscan culture appears unique to any other known prehistoric culture, therefore must have developed nowhere else but within Italy".^[36] He admits to foreign contributions to the cultural development of the Etruscans, however, he maintains that the mixture of culture took place on Italian soil; the "parent stock" was sufficiently homogeneous and therefore of Italian origin. Indigenous arguments are based on the unique attributes of Etruscan culture, believing that it is an "evolutionary sequence" in which Etruria developed its independent culture, a "formative process of the Etruscan which can only take place on the territory of Etruria itself".^[36] Nevertheless, to subscribe to this thesis a problem arises; Etruscan culture was "no doubt in itself a unique and developing phenomenon", however, this culture has been compounded of and developed from other earlier cultural strains.^[36] The question remains whether these strains were dominant in the finished product; it is difficult to differentiate between a product of a foreign culture and an independent culture with foreign influences. Other historical methodologies, such as linguistics, archaeology and DNA research, have attempted to clarify this distinction and highlight the extent of foreign influence in Etruscan culture.

Linguists have attempted to shed light on the degree of foreign influence on the Etruscan civilisation. R.S.P. Beekes places reliance on his linguistic analysis of the Lemnian inscriptions, which he believes "provided the answer to the problem of the origins of the Etruscans".^[37] The Lemnos stele is a sixth-century stele in a pre-Hellenic tongue found in Lemnos, a Northern Greek island. The inscription shows distinct similarities to the Etruscan language; both languages apply a similar four vowel system, grammar and vocabulary. Beekes argues that autochthonous theories are merely "a desperate attempt to avoid the evident conclusion from the Lemnian inscription".^[37] He does not suggest that the language shaped the Etruscan culture, but rather that the similarities in the two languages proves that the Etruscans migrated from Asia Minor, as Herodotus suggested.

Alison E. Cooley criticises Beekes' assumption that the Eastern features found in the etymological research of the Lemnian inscription "simply settles the question", yet she imposes that the "later Eastern attributes of the Etruscan is often a product of acculturation".^[38] Cooley in contrary to Beekes argues that the similarities in the languages are a result of contact with Greek and Lydian civilisation due to commercial trade.

Linguists, such as Beekes, are commonly criticised for the assumption that "because they speak a common language, they must belong to the same race".^[34] However, recently linguists such as Kari Gibson have argued that language is the predominant factor in the cultural formation of a national identity and therefore cannot be discarded as an independent attribute of a cultural identity, but rather the framework through which such a civilisation functions. Gibson suggests that language is inextricably linked to national and cultural identity of the speaker, and as a "powerful symbol of national and ethnic identity" determines an individual's perception of their environment.^[39] To place this argument in the linguistic debate of Etruscan origins, modern scholars such as Cooley are perhaps being overly dismissive of the impact of language on the development of the Etruscan identity; "Ethnic identity is twin skin to linguistic identity".^[40] It is difficult for scholarship to evaluate the degree of influence the Lydian language would have had on the cultural development of Etruria, though language is undeniably a key ingredient in the development of Etruscan culture.

Archaeology has a prominent role in revealing aspects of Etruscan daily life and the social structure of such a sophisticated civilisation, thus exposing foreign influences. The most significant archaeological discoveries of Etruscan civilisation are found in the excavation of gravesites. Bonfante emphasises the unique cultural elements the funerary frescoes in these gravesites illustrate. The well preserved frescoes of the funerary chambers found in the necropolis of Monterozzi, situated on a ridge southeast of the ancient city of Tarquinia, are vital to the reconstruction of Etruscan culture. Scholars of the autochthonous theory tend to draw attention to the frescoes' depiction of women. Material evidence for the high social status of Etruscan women can be found on the frescoes in the Tomb of the Leopards, dating to the 5th century BC.^[41] The fresco illustrates women and men conversing together and wearing the same crowns of laurel, which implies that symbols of status in Etruscan society were similar for men and women. This advanced status for women is a unique Etruscan element that is not known from any other culture of its time.

Frescoes found in the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing mark the earliest time where men are not depicted dominating their environment. In the fresco of birds flying over a boat of men, the men are shown to be proportionally smaller than the birds. Pallottino points out that this is a unique attribute from Etruscan artworks, because it provides an insight into how the Etruscans viewed themselves in comparison to their environment. Ancient works dated prior to this fresco tended to view men dominating their environment. However, the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing illustrates men in the background of the work, rather than typically the foreground, suggesting to scholars such as Pallottino that Etruria had developed a culture and social understanding unlike any other prehistoric civilisation and therefore cannot be a product of any prior culture.

Genetic evidence

There have been a number of genetic studies of Etruscans and modern Tuscans compared with other populations, some of which indicate the local, European origin of Etruscans and others supportive of an allochthonous origin. In general, the direct testing of ancient Etruscan DNA has supported a deep, local origin, while the testing of modern samples as a proxy for Etruscans are rather inconclusive and inconsistent.^[42]^[43] Although a direct measure should be considered superior to a proxy measure, debate continues because of mistrust of ancient DNA results and because of the far smaller sample sizes for ancient DNA, compared to the high confidence, vast quantity, and thus greater statistical power of conclusions based on direct medical sampling of current DNA.

The very large mtDNA study from 2013 indicates, based on maternally-inherited DNA, that the Etruscans were most likely a native population.^[8]^[9] The study extracted and typed the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of 14 individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoleis, analyzing them along with previously analyzed Etruscan mtDNA, other ancient European mtDNA, modern and Medieval samples from Tuscany, and 4,910 modern individuals from the Mediterranean basin. The ancient (30 Etruscans, 27 Medieval Tuscans) and modern DNA sequences (370 Tuscans) were subjected to several million computer simulation runs, showing that the Etruscans can be considered ancestral to Medieval and, especially in the subpopulations from Casentino and Volterra, of modern Tuscans; modern populations from Murlo and Florence, by contrast, were shown not to continue the Medieval population. By further considering two Anatolian samples (35 and 123 individuals), it was estimated that the genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago, between 6,000 and 7,000 years ago during the Neolithic Revolution, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an immediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern Mediterranean shores. According to the study, ancient Etruscan mtDNA is closest among modern European populations and is not particularly close to Turkish or other Eastern Mediterranean populations. Among ancient populations, ancient Etruscans were found to be closest to Neolithic farmers from Central Europe.^[8]^[9]

This result is largely in line with previous mtDNA results from 2004 (in a smaller study also based on ancient DNA), and contradictory to results from 2007 (based on modern DNA). The 2004 study was based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 80 bone samples taken from tombs dating from the seventh century to the third century BC in Etruria.^[44] This study found that the ancient DNA extracted from the Etruscan remains had some affinities with modern European populations including Germans, English people from Cornwall, and Tuscans in Italy. In addition the Etruscan samples possibly revealed more genetic inheritance from the eastern and southern Mediterranean than modern Italian samples contain. The study was marred by concerns that mtDNA sequences from the archeological samples represented severely damaged or contaminated DNA;^[45] however, subsequent investigation showed that the samples passed the most stringent tests of DNA degradation available.^[46]

An mtDNA study from 2007, by contrast, earlier suggested a Near Eastern origin.^[47] Achilli et al. (2007) found in a modern sample of 86 individuals from Murlo, a small town of Etruscan origin, an unusually high frequency (17.5%) of Near Eastern mtDNA haplogroups, while other Tuscan populations do not show the same striking feature. Based on this result Achilli concluded that "their data support the scenario of a post-Neolithic genetic input from the Near East to the present-day population of Tuscany", "a scenario in agreement with the Lydian origin of Etruscans". In the absence of any dating evidence, there is, however, no direct link between this genetic input and the Etruscans. Furthermore, there is no evidence that these mtDNA haplogroups found in Murlo maybe arrived between the late Bronze and early Iron Age, as some of these mtDNA haplogroups have been found in other studies as early as the Aeneolithic era in Italy.^[48]^[9] Not to mention that all the mtDNA haplogroups found in Murlo and classified by Achilli et al. as of Near Eastern origin are actually widespread in modern samples from other areas of Italy and Europe with no link with the Etruscans.^[49]

A recent Y-DNA study from 2018 on a modern sample of 113 individuals from Volterra, a town of Etruscan origin, Grugni at al. keeps all the possibilities open, although the last scenario is the one most supported by the percentages, and concludes that "the presence of J2a-M67* (2,7%) suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a-L497 (7,1%) at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans, while the high incidence of European R1b lineages (R1b 49,8%, R1b-U152 24,5%) cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilisation from the preceding Villanovan society, as suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus".^[50]

In the collective volume Etruscology published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that "none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia" and "there are indications that the evidence of DNA can support the theory that Etruscan people are autochthonous in central Italy".^[43]

References

1. ^Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Book I Chapters 30 1.
2. ^{{cite book |last=MacIntosh Turfa |first=Jean |date=2013 |title= The Etruscan World|trans-title= |url= |language=English |location=London and New York |publisher= Routledge Taylor & Francis Group|isbn=978-0-415-67308-2}}
3. ^Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, 1.17–19
4. ^Titus Livius (Livy), The History of Rome (Ab Urbe Condita), Book 5
5. ^Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., P. Menozzi, A. Piazza. 1994. The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press, Princeton. {{ISBN|0-691-02905-9}}
6. ^Rix 1998. Rätisch und Etruskisch (Innsbruck).
7. ^{{cite web|last1=De Ligt|first1=Luuk|title=An Eteocretan Inscription from Praisos and the Homeland of the Sea peoples|url=http://www.talanta.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/TAL-40-412008-2009-pag-151-172-DeLigt.pdf|website=talanta.nl|publisher=ALANTA XL-XLI (2008–2009), 151–172}}
8. ^¹²{{cite journal | pmc= 3566088|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0055519| journal=PLoS ONE | title=Origins and Evolution of the Etruscans' mtDNA | date=2013 | pmid=23405165 | volume= 8| issue= 2| pages= e55519|vauthors=Ghirotto S, Tassi F, Fumagalli E, Colonna V, Sandionigi A, Lari M, et al|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2013PLoSO...855519G}}
9. ^¹²³{{cite journal |pmc= |doi=10.1002/ajpa.22319| journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology | title=Genetic evidence does not support an Etruscan origin in Anatolia.| date=2013 | pmid=23900768 | volume=152 | issue= 1| pages= 11–18|vauthors=Tassi F, Ghirotto S, Caramelli D, Barbujani G|display-authors=etal}}
10. ^¹Book I, Section 30.
11. ^Page 52. Pallottino attributes this theory in modern times to the historian, Eduard Meyer, with Ugo Antonielli later associating the Villanovan and the natives. But Mayer soon adopted the oriental theory and Antonielli the northern. Drews in The End of the Bronze Age, page 59, available as a preview on Google Books at [https://books.google.com/books?id=bFpK6aXEWN8C&pg=PA59&lpg=PA59&dq=etruscan+eduard+meyer&source=web&ots=YTpbjObf7V&sig=fCa7OS4v633NIT8veXE9ugSZ1Fc], reports on Meyer and the views of Antonielli are stated in a review by R. A. L. Fell of Studi Etruschi. Vol. I. Rassegna di Etruscologia by A. Neppi Modona, the first page of which is found at [https://www.jstor.org/stable/296110].
12. ^Page 3.
13. ^Pallottino, page 52, who says that he relies on Alfredo Trombetti and Giacomo Devoto.
14. ^{{cite news| author= Eric Pace | title=Massimo Pallottino, 85, Expert On Ancient Etruscans, Is Dead |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/02/20/obituaries/massimo-pallottino-85-expert-on-ancient-etruscans-is-dead.html |publisher=The New York Times |location= | date=1995-02-20 | accessdate=2010-05-02}}
15. ^{{cite book|author=Massimo Pallottino |title=The Etruscans |year=1942 | pages=68–69 }}
16. ^Mallory (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson.
17. ^Histories 1.94
18. ^{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|title=The Rise of the Greeks|year=1987|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=978-0-684-18536-1|url=https://books.google.com/?id=jeVYyDQqQD8C&pg=PT181&lpg=PT181&dq=Michael+Grant,+Lydians+origins+Etruscans|page=311}}
19. ^{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Michael|title=The Etruscans|year=1980|publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson|isbn=978-0-9650356-8-2|url=|location= London|page=}}
20. ^{{cite book |last1= |first1= |author-link1= |last2= |first2= |author-link2= |last3= |first3= |author-link3= |last4= |first4= |author-link4= |last5= |first5= |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |last-author-amp= |translator-last1= |translator-first1= |translator-link1= |translator-mask1= |orig-year= |chapter= |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |chapter-url= |chapter-format= |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link= |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor2-link= |editor3-last= Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |title=The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization |script-title= |trans-title= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=0awiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA292&lpg=PA292|dead-url= |format= |type= |series=Oxford Companions |language=English |volume= |issue= |others= |edition=2 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2014 |pages=291–292 |nopp= |bibcode= |doi= |doi-broken-date= |isbn=9780191016752 |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |via= |registration= |subscription= |lay-summary= |lay-source= |lay-date= |quote=Briquel's convincing demonstration that the famous story of an exodus, led by Tyrrhenus from Lydia to Italy, was a deliberate political fabrication created in the Hellenized milieu of the court at Sardis in the early 6th cent. bce.. |name-list-format= |mode= |ref= }}
21. ^{{cite book |last1=Briquel |first1=Dominique |author-link1= |author-link2= |author-link3= |author-link4= |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |last-author-amp= |translator-last1= |translator-first1= |translator-link1= |translator-mask1= |year=2013 |orig-year= |chapter=Etruscan Origins and the Ancient Authors |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |editor1-last=Turfa |editor1-first= Jean|editor1-link= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor2-link= |editor3-last= |editor3-first= |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |title= The Etruscan World |script-title= |trans-title= |dead-url= |type= |series= |language=English |volume= |issue= |others= |edition= |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge Taylor & Francis Group |publication-date= |pages= 36–56|nopp= |bibcode= |doi= |doi-broken-date= |isbn=978-0-415-67308-2 |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |via= |registration= |subscription= |lay-summary= |lay-source= |lay-date= |quote= |name-list-format= |mode= |ref= }}
22. ^Dominique Briquel, Le origini degli Etruschi: una questione dibattuta sin dall’antichità, in M. Torelli (ed.), Gli Etruschi [Catalogo della mostra, Venezia, 2000], Bompiani, Milano, 2000, p. 43-51 (Italian).
23. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Wainwrıght | first1 = G.A. | title = The Teresh, the Etruscans and Asia Minor | url = | journal = Anatolian Studies | volume = 9 | issue = | pages = 197–213 | year = 1959 | doi=10.2307/3642340| jstor = 3642340 }}
24. ^Pallottino, The Etruscans 1978:49ff.
25. ^{{cite book|author=Strabo |title=Strabo |year=| page=5.2.2}}
26. ^{{cite book|author=Pindar |title=Pythuan Odes |year=| page=1.72}}
27. ^{{cite book|author= Thucydides |title= Thucydides |year=| page=4.106 }}
28. ^{{cite book| title=The Etruscan Language | url=http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=ett | publisher=Linguist List.org | accessdate=2009-04-26}}
29. ^{{cite book|author= Herodotus |title= Herodotus |year=| page=1.96 }}
30. ^Larissa Bonfante, Etruscans Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies, Wayne State University Press, 1986
31. ^¹²³Valeria Forte, Etruscan Origins and Italian Nationalism, University of Dallas, 2011
32. ^Larissa Bonfante, Etruscans Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies, Wayne State University
33. ^Dionysius, The Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Book 1 Section 30, Translated by Earnest Cary, Harvard University Press, 1950
34. ^¹²John Bryan Ward-Perkins, The Problem of Etruscan Origins, Harvard University, 1959
35. ^D.H. Lawrence, Etruscan Places: Travels through forgotten Italy, TaurisParke, 2011
36. ^¹²Massimo Pallottino, The Etruscans', Indiana University Press, 1955
37. ^¹R.S.P. Beekes, The Origin of the Etruscans , Royal Dutch Academy, 2003
38. ^Alison. E Cooley, Critical Review of R.S.P Beekes, The Classical Associations, 2005
39. ^Kari Gibson, The Myths of Language use and the Homogenization of Bilingual Workers' Identities, University of Hawaii, 2004
40. ^Gloria Anzaldua, Borderlands, (page 59), Aunt Lute Books, 1987
41. ^Luisa Banti, Etruscan Cities and their Culture, University of California Press, 1973
42. ^{{cite book |last1= Kron|first1= Geof|author-link1= |author-link2= |author-link3= |author-link4= |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |last-author-amp= |translator-last1= |translator-first1= |translator-link1= |translator-mask1= |year= 2013|orig-year= |chapter= Fleshing out the demography of Etruria|script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |editor1-last= Macintosh Turfa|editor1-first= Jean|editor1-link= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor2-link= |editor3-last= |editor3-first= |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |title=The Etruscan World |script-title= |trans-title= |dead-url= |type= |series= |language=English |volume= |issue= |others= |edition= |location=London-New York |publisher=Routledge |publication-date= |pages=56–78 |nopp= |bibcode= |doi= |doi-broken-date= |isbn=978-0-415-67308-2|issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |via= |registration= |subscription= |lay-summary= |lay-source= |lay-date= |quote= |name-list-format= |mode= |ref= }}
43. ^¹{{cite book |last1=Perkins |first1=Phil |author-link1= |author-link2= |author-link3= |author-link4= |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |last-author-amp= |translator-last1= |translator-first1= |translator-link1= |translator-mask1= |year=2017 |orig-year= |chapter=DNA and Etruscan identity |script-chapter= |trans-chapter= |editor1-last=Naso |editor1-first= Alessandro|editor1-link= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor2-link= |editor3-last= |editor3-first= |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |title=Etruscology |script-title= |trans-title= |dead-url= |type= |series= |language=English |volume= |issue= |others= |edition= |location=Berlin |publisher= De Gruyter|publication-date=2017 |pages=109–118 |nopp= |bibcode= |doi= |doi-broken-date= |isbn= 978-1-934078-49-5|issn= |jfm= |jstor= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |osti= |pmc= |pmid= |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |via= |registration= |subscription= |lay-summary= |lay-source= |lay-date= |quote= |name-list-format= |mode= |ref= }}
44. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Vernesi C, Caramelli D, Dupanloup I |title=The Etruscans: a population-genetic study |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=694–704 |date=April 2004 |pmid=15015132 |pmc=1181945 |doi=10.1086/383284 |display-authors=etal}}
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48. ^{{cite journal |last1=Leonardi |first1=Michela |author-link1= |last2=Sandionigi |first2= Anna|author-link2= |last3= Conzato|first3=Annalisa |author-link3= |last4=Lari |first4=Martina |author-link4= |last5= Tassi |first5=Francesca |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |name-list-format= |last-author-amp= |year=2018 |orig-year= |editor1-last= |editor1-first= |editor1-link= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor2-link= |editor3-last= |editor3-first= |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |others= |title=The female ancestor's tale: Long‐term matrilineal continuity in a nonisolated region of Tuscany |script-title= |trans-title=|department= |journal= American Journal of Physical Anthropology|type= |series= |language= |edition= |publication-place= |publication-date= |volume=167 |issue=3 |pages=497–506 |nopp= |asin= |bibcode= |bibcode-access= |biorxiv= |citeseerx= |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23679 |doi-access= |isbn= |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |jstor-access= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |ol-access= |osti= |osti-access= |pmc= |pmid=30187463 |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |layurl= |laysource= |laydate= |quote= |ref= }}
49. ^{{cite journal |last1= Gandini|first1=Francesca |author-link1= |author-link2= |author-link3= |author-link4= |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |name-list-format= |last-author-amp= |year=2016 |orig-year= |editor1-last= |editor1-first= |editor1-link= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor2-link= |editor3-last= |editor3-first= |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |others= |title=Mapping human dispersals into the Horn of Africa from Arabian Ice Age refugia using mitogenomes |script-title= |trans-title= |department= |journal=Scientific Reports |type= |series= |language=English |edition= |publication-place= |publication-date= |volume=6 |issue=25472 |pages= 25472|nopp= |asin= |bibcode= |bibcode-access= |biorxiv= |citeseerx= |doi=10.1038/srep25472 |doi-access= |isbn= |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |jstor-access= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |ol-access= |osti= |osti-access= |pmc= 4857117|pmid=27146119 |rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |layurl= |laysource= |laydate= |quote= |ref= }}
50. ^{{cite journal |last1=Grugni |first1=Viola |author-link1= |author-link2= |author-link3= |author-link4= |author-link5= |display-authors= |author-mask= |name-list-format= |last-author-amp= |year=2018 |orig-year= |editor1-last= |editor1-first= |editor1-link= |editor2-last= |editor2-first= |editor2-link= |editor3-last= |editor3-first= |editor3-link= |editor4-last= |editor4-first= |editor4-link= |editor5-last= |editor5-first= |editor5-link= |display-editors= |others= |title=Reconstructing the genetic history of Italians: new insights from a male (Y-chromosome) perspective |script-title= |trans-title= |department= |journal=Annals of Human Biology |type= |series= |language=English |edition= |publication-date=30 January 2018 |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages= 44–56 |nopp= |asin= |bibcode= |bibcode-access= |biorxiv= |citeseerx= |doi=10.1080/03014460.2017.1409801 |doi-access= |isbn= |issn= |jfm= |jstor= |jstor-access= |lccn= |mr= |oclc= |ol= |ol-access= |osti= |osti-access= |pmc= |pmid= 29382284|rfc= |ssrn= |zbl= |id= |layurl= |laysource= |laydate= |quote=As a matter of fact, while the presence of J2a-M67* suggests contacts by sea with Anatolian people, in agreement with the Herodotus hypothesis of an external Anatolian source of Etruscans, the finding of the Central European lineage G2a-L497 at considerable frequency would rather support a Northern European origin of Etruscans. On the other hand, the high incidence of European R1b lineages cannot rule out the scenario of an autochthonous process of formation of the Etruscan civilisation from the preceding Villanovan society, as first suggested by Dionysius of Halicarnassus; a detailed analysis of haplogroup R1b-U152 could prove very informative in this regard. |ref= }}

Autochthonous origin (indigenous)

Allochthonous origin

"Sea peoples"

Differentiating between cultural origin and cultural influence

Genetic evidence

References

Further reading