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词条 Islam in Germany
释义

  1. Demographics

      Prison population  

  2. History

  3. Denominations

  4. Islamic organisations

     Sunni  Shia  Ahmadiyya  Liberal Islam   Wahhabism   Others  Umbrella organisations   Education  

  5. Controversies

      Antisemitism   In the education system  Construction of mosques and other projects  Islamic Theological Studies  Islamic fundamentalism{{anchor|Fears_of_Islamic_fundamentalism}}   Salafism   Islamist scene in Germany  Banning of IHH Germany 

  6. Religiosity of young Muslims

  7. Notable German Muslims

     A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  K  L  M  N  O  S  T  V 

  8. German Orientalists

  9. See also

  10. References

  11. External links

{{Islam in Europe by country}}{{Islam by country}}

Owing to labour migration in the 1960s and several waves of political refugees since the 1970s, Islam has become a visible religion in Germany.[1] According to a national census conducted in 2011, 1.9% of Germany's population (around 1.5 million people) declared themselves as Muslim. However, this is likely to underestimate the true number, given that many respondents may have exercised their right not to state their religion.[2]

An estimate made in 2015 calculated that there are 4.4 to 4.7 million Muslims in Germany (5.4–5.7% of the population).[3] Of these, 1.9 million are German citizens (2.4%).[4] According to the German statistical office 9.1% of all newborns in Germany had Muslim parents in 2005.[5]

Demographics

{{further|Religion in Germany}}

Islam is the largest minority religion in the country, with the Protestant and Roman Catholic confessions being the majority religions. There are between 2.1 and 4.7 million Muslims.[6][7][8]

The large majority of Muslims in Germany are of Turkish origin (63.2%),[9] followed by smaller groups from Pakistan, countries of the former Yugoslavia, Arab countries, Iran and Afghanistan. Most Muslims live in Berlin and the larger cities of former West Germany. However, unlike in most other European countries, sizeable Muslim communities exist in some rural regions of Germany, especially Baden-Württemberg, Hesse and parts of Bavaria and North Rhine-Westphalia. Owing to the lack of labour immigration before 1989, there are only very few Muslims in the former East Germany. Among the German districts with the highest share of Muslim migrants are Groß-Gerau (district) and Offenbach (district) according to migrants data from the census 2011. [10] The majority of Muslims in Germany are Sunnis, at 75%. There are Shia Muslims (7%) and mostly from Iran.{{fact|date=January 2017}} The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community organization comprise a minority of Germany's Muslims, numbering some 35,000 members or a little over 1% of the Muslim population,[11] and are found in 244 communities[11] as of 2013.

Prison population

According to the Huffington Post in February 2018 which quired each of the 15 state justice ministries, 12 300 Muslims are in prison and constitute about 20% of the total 65 000 prison population in Germany which constitutes an over-representation. The highest shares are in city states of Bremen (29%), Hamburg (28%) but the share is high also in large states such as Hessen (26%) Baden-Württemberg (26%). The share is lower in the former East Germany.[12]

History

Muslims first moved to Germany as part of the diplomatic, military and economic relations between Germany and the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century.[13] Twenty Muslim soldiers served under Frederick William I of Prussia, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1745, Frederick II of Prussia established a unit of Muslims in the Prussian army called the "Muslim Riders" and consisting mainly of Bosniaks, Albanians and Tatars. In 1760 a Bosniak corps was established with about 1,000 men.[14]

In 1798 a Muslim cemetery was established in Berlin. The cemetery, which moved in 1866, still exists today.

The German section of the World Islamic Congress and the Islam Colloquium, the first German Muslim educational institution for children, were established in 1932. At this time there were 3,000 Muslims in Germany, 300 of whom were of German descent.

The Islamic Institut Ma’ahad-ul-Islam was founded in 1927 and is now known under the name "Zentralinstitut Islam-Archiv-Deutschland" (Central Islamic Archive Institute).

The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al-Husseini energetically recruited Muslims for the SS (Schutzstaffel), the Nazi Party’s elite military command.[15] He recruited Muslim volunteers for the German armed forces and was involved in the organization and recruitment of Muslims into several divisions of the Waffen SS and other units.

After the West German Government invited foreign workers ("Gastarbeiter") in 1961, the figure sharply rose to currently 4.3 million within two decades (most of them Turkish from the rural region of Anatolia in southeast Turkey). They are sometimes called a parallel society within ethnic Germans.[16]

In 2017, Muslims and Islamic institutions were targeted by attacks 950 times, where houses are painted with Nazi symbols, hijab-wearing women are harassed, threatening letters are sent and 33 people were injured. In nearly all cases, the perpetrators were right-wing extremists.[17]

In May 2018 a court in Berlin upheld the right to the state's neutrality principle by barring a primary school teacher from wearing a headscarf during classes, where the court spokesman stated that children should be free of the influence that can be exerted by religious symbols.[18]

According to a study in 2018 by Leipzig University, 56% of Germans sometimes thought the many Muslims made them feel like strangers in their own country, up from 43% in 2014. In 2018, 44% thought immigration by Muslims should be banned, up from 37% in 2014.[19]

In December 2018, the government of Germany strengthened the control of Saudi, Kuwaiti and Qatari funding for radical mosque congregations. The measure was recommended by an anti-terrorist agency in Berlin (German: Terrorismus-Abwehrzentrum) which since 2015 had started to monitor Safalist proselytizing funding in the wake of the European migrant crisis to prevent refugees from becoming radicalized. Henceforth Gulf authorities are required to report payments and funding to the German Federal Foreign Office (German: Auswärtigen Amt).[20][21]

In December 2018, there were no official statistics on how much funding mosques in Germany received from abroad.[20]

Denominations

Muslims in Germany belong to serval different branches of Islam (approximately data):

  • Sunnis 2,640,000[22][23]
  • Alevis 500,000[22][23]
  • Twelvers Shi'as 225,500[22][23]
  • Alawites 70,000[22][23]
  • Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat Deutschland K.d.ö.R. 35,000-45,000[22][23][24][25]
  • Salafis 10,300[26]
  • Sufis 10,000[22][23]
  • Ismailis 1,900[22][23]
  • Zaydis 800[22][23]
  • Ibadis 270[22][23]
  • Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement 60[27]

Islamic organisations

Only a minority of the Muslims residing in Germany are members of religious associations.

Sunni

  • Diyanet İşleri Türk İslam Birliği (DİTİB): German branch of the Turkish Presidency for Religious Affairs, Cologne. As of 2016, the Turkish government funds and provides staff for 900 of Germany's roughly 3000 mosques run by DİTİB.[28]
  • Islamische Gemeinschaft Milli Görüş: close to the Islamist Saadet Partisi in Turkey, Kerpen near Cologne
  • Islamische Gemeinschaft Jamaat un-Nur (de): German branch of the Risale-i Nur Society (Said Nursi)
  • Islamische Gemeinschaft in Deutschland organization of Arab Muslims close to the Muslim Brotherhood, Frankfurt

In addition there are numerous local associations without affiliation to any of these organisations. Two organisations have been banned in 2002 because their programme was judged as contrary to the constitution: The "Hizb ut-Tahrir" and the so-called "Caliphate State" founded by Cemalettin Kaplan and later led by his son Metin Kaplan.

Shia

  • Islamische Gemeinschaft der schiitischen Gemeinden Deutschlands (IGS): Head organization that unite all Shiite mosques and associations in Germany, with being the Islamic Centre Hamburg the most important Shia mosque in Germany.
  • Al-Mustafa Institut Berlin: A branch of the Al-Mustafa International University in Qum, Iran to Islamic theology to students in Germany and Europe.

Ahmadiyya

  • Ahmadiyya Muslim Jamaat Deutschland K.d.ö.R.: German branch of the worldwide Ahmadiyya Community. There is no ethnicity or race associated with this community although most of the members of the community residing in Germany are of Pakistani origin. The Ahmadiyya Community was established in Germany in 1923 in Berlin and is one of the largest in Europe. Communities exist in Baden-Württemberg, Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia, Hesse and Bremen.[29]
  • Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement: German branch of the worldwide Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement.

Liberal Islam

  • Ibn Ruschd-Goethe mosque in Berlin was founded by Seyran Ateş. The liberal mosque has been condemned by the Turkish religious authority and the Egyptian Fatwa Council at the Al-Azhar University.[30][31]
  • Ibn Rushd Prize for Freedom of Thought

Wahhabism

  • King Fahd Academy, sponsored by Saudi Arabia. The school was closed at the end of the 2016/2017 school year, after long-running criticism that it was attracting Islamists to Germany.[32]
  • According to the FFGI at Goethe University Frankfurt, wahhabist ideology is spread in Germany as in other European country mostly by an array of informal, personal and organisational networks, where organisations closely associated with the government of Saudi Arabia such as the Muslim World League (WML) and the World Association of Muslim Youth are actively participating.[33]

Others

  • Verband der islamischen Kulturzentren: German branch of the conservative Süleymancı sect in Turkey, Cologne
  • Verband der Islamischen Gemeinden der Bosniaken: Bosnian Muslims, Kamp-Lintfort near Duisburg
  • Zentralinstitut Islam-Archiv-Deutschland e.V. : Documentary of Islamic Foundation-writings since 1739. The Islamic Institute was founded in 1942 (Sooner called Ma’ahad-ul-Islam Institut).{{Clarify|date=November 2014}}

Umbrella organisations

Furthermore, there are the following umbrella organisations:

  • Central Council of Muslims in Germany (Zentralrat der Muslime in Deutschland)
  • Islamic Council in Germany (Islamrat in Deutschland)

Education

  • The A-Nur-Kita preschool was closed in February 2019 due to its parent organisation, the mosque association Arab Nil Rhein in Mainz propagated material from the Muslim Brotherhood and salafist ideology. Therefore the parent association was incompatible with the constitution of Germany. This was the first time authorities closed any preschool in Rhineland-Palatinate (German: Rheinland-Pfalz). A-Nur-Kita was the first and only Muslim preschool in Rhineland-Palatinate.[34]

Controversies

As elsewhere in Western Europe, the rapid growth of the Muslim community in Germany has led to social tensions and political controversy, partly connected to Islamic extremism, and more generally due to the perceived difficulties of multiculturalism and fears of Überfremdung.

Antisemitism

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A 2017 study on Jewish perspectives on antisemitism in Germany by Bielefeld University found that individuals and groups belonging to the extreme right and extreme left were equally represented as perpetrators of antisemitic harassment and assault, while the largest part of the attacks were committed by Muslim assailants. The study also found that 70% of the participants feared a rise in antisemitism due to immigration citing the antisemitic views of the refugees.[38]

In the education system

One such issue concerns the wearing of the head-scarf by teachers in schools and universities. The right to practice one's religion, stated by the teachers in question, contradicts in the view of many the neutral stance of the state towards religion. As of 2006, many of the German federal states have introduced legislation banning head-scarves for teachers. However, such a ban in North-Rhein Westphalia was declared as unconstitutional in 2015 by the Federal Constitutional Court. [39]

In the German federal states with the exception of Bremen, Berlin and Brandenburg, lessons of religious education overseen by the respective religious communities are taught as an elective subject in state schools. It is being discussed whether apart from the Catholic and Protestant (and in a few schools, Jewish) religious education that currently exists, a comparable subject of Islamic religious education should be introduced as a regular part of the curricula. In several states, trials for Islamic religious education are being conducted, while in the states of Hessen, Lower-Saxony and Northrhine-Westphalia, Islamic religious education already is integrated as a regular class. The problem that the cooperation with Islamic organisations is hampered by the fact that none of them can be considered as representative of the whole Muslim community.{{cn|date=April 2018}}

Construction of mosques and other projects

The construction of mosques is occasionally resisted by anti Muslim reactions in the neighbourhoods concerned. For example, in 2007 an attempt by Muslims to build a large mosque in Cologne sparked a controversy.[40]

Similarly with the Sendlinger Mosque Controversy,{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}} and the proposed construction of a training academy in Munich, originally called the "Centre for Islam in Europe, Munich" (ZIE-M), and later the "Munich Forum for Islam".[41]

Islamic Theological Studies

In 2010, the German Ministry of Education and Research established Islamic Theological Studies as an academic discipline at public universities in order to train teachers for Islamic religious education and Muslim theologians. Since then, Islamic theological departments have been established at several universities, conducting research and teaching on Islam from a theological perspective.[42]

Islamic fundamentalism{{anchor|Fears_of_Islamic_fundamentalism}}

Concerns of Islamic fundamentalism came to the fore after September 11, 2001, especially with respect to Islamic fundamentalism among second- and third-generation Muslims in Germany - the Hamburg cell, which included Mohamed Atta, was prominent in the planning and execution of the September 11 attacks. Also the various confrontations between Islamic religious law (Sharia) and the norms of German Grundgesetz and culture are the subject of intense debate. German critics include both liberals and Christian groups. The former claim that Islamic fundamentalism violates basic fundamental rights whereas the latter maintain that Germany is a state and society grounded in the Christian tradition.

According to a 2007 Federal Ministry of the Interior report almost half of all young Muslims in Germany support fundamentalist views. About 12% of Muslims in Germany identified with moral-religious criticism against Western societal values in combination with corporal punishment up to and including the death penalty.[43]

According to a 2012 poll, 72% of the Turks in Germany believe that Islam is the only true religion and 46% wish that one day more Muslims live in Germany than Christians.[44][45][46] According to a 10-year survey by the University of Bielefeld, which dealt with different aspects of attitudes to Islam, "distrust" of Islam is widespread in Germany with only 19 percent of Germans believing that Islam is compatible with German culture.[47]

According to 2013 study by Social Science Research Center Berlin, two thirds of the Muslims interviewed say that religious rules are more important to them than the laws of the country in which they live, almost 60 percent of the Muslim respondents reject homosexuals as friends; 45 percent think that Jews cannot be trusted; and an equally large group believes that the West is out to destroy Islam (Christian respondents’ answers for comparison: As many as 9 percent are openly anti-Semitic; 13 percent do not want to have homosexuals as friends; and 23 percent think that Muslims aim to destroy Western culture).[48]

According to a 2012 poll, 25% of the Turks in Germany believe atheists are inferior human beings.[49][50]

Salafism

Salafists strive to live exclusively according to the Quran. According to German authorities, Salafism is incompatible with the principles codified in the Constitution of Germany, in particular democracy, the rule of law and a political order based on human rights.[51] According to the German security service, the Salafist movement attracts rising numbers. In 2011 there were an estimated 3800 Salafists in Germany, which rose to 10300 in September 2017.[52] According to head of security office Hans-Georg Maaßen, the Salafist scene in Germany is not dominated by any one single individual, but instead a great many persons have to be monitored.[53]

According to German Federal Agency for Civic Education, the Salafist movement in Germany is centered in the Frankfurt Rhine-Main metropolitan area, North Rhine-Westphalia and Berlin. In these areas, mosques and charismatic imams are the driving factors behind recruitment to the Salafist movement.[54]

In 2016, the interior ministry of North Rhine-Westphalia reported that the number of mosques with a Salafist influence had risen from 30 to 55, which indicated both an actual increase and improved reporting.[55]

In February 2017, the German Salafist mosque organisation Berliner Fussilet-Moscheeverein was banned by authorities. Anis Amri, the perpetrator of the 2016 Berlin truck attack, was said to be among its visitors. In March 2017, the German Muslim community organisation Deutschsprachige Islamkreis Hildesheim was also banned after investigators found that its members were preparing to travel to the conflict zone in Syria to fight for the Islamic State. According to the Federal Agency for Civic Education, these examples show that Salafist mosques not only concern themselves with religious matters, but also prepare serious crimes and terrorist activities.[54]

Islamist scene in Germany

Turkish and Kurdish Islamist groups are also active in Germany, and Turkish and Kurdish Islamists have co-operated in Germany as in the case of the Sauerland terror cell.[56] Political scientist Guido Steinberg stated that many top leaders of Islamist organizations in Turkey fled to Germany in the 2000s, and that the Turkish (Kurdish) Hizbullah has also "left an imprint on Turkish Kurds in Germany."[56] Also many Kurds from Iraq (there are about 50,000 to 80,000 Iraqi Kurds in Germany) financially supported Kurdish-Islamist groups like Ansar al Islam.[56] Many Islamists in Germany are ethnic Kurds (Iraqi and Turkish Kurds) or Turks. Before 2006, the German Islamist scene was dominated by Iraqi Kurds and Palestinians, but since 2006 Kurds and Turks from Turkey are dominant.[56]

In 2016, the German security service estimated that about 24 000 Muslims were part of Islamists movements in Germany, of which 10 000 belonged to the Salafist scene.[54]

In 2016, 90 mosques were monitored by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution for their islamist ideology. These were mostly Arabic-language "backyard mosques" where self-appointed imams exhorted their followers to wage jihad.[57]

Since the start of 2017 until April 2018, 80 Islamist extremists without German citizenship were deported to their home countries.[58]

In March 2018, there were 760 islamists in Germany classified as dangerous by police authorities, of which more than half were on German territory and 153 of the latter were in prison.[59]

Banning of IHH Germany

In July 2010, Germany outlawed the Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V. (IHH Germany), saying it had used donations to support Hamas, which is considered by the European Union and Germany to be a terrorist organization,[60][84] while presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian help. German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said, "Donations to so-called social welfare groups belonging to Hamas, such as the millions given by IHH, actually support the terror organization Hamas as a whole."[60][61] IHH e.V. was believed by the German Authorities to have collected money in mosques and to have sent $8.3 million to organizations related to Hamas.[62]

Religiosity of young Muslims

Studies show that while not all Muslims are religious, Muslim youths are markedly more religious than non-Muslim youths. A study comparing Turkish Muslim youths living in Germany and German youth found that the former were more likely to attend religious services regularly (35% versus 14%).[63]

41% of young Turkish Muslim boys and 52% of the girls said they prayed "sometimes or regularly"; 64% of boys and 74% of girls said they wanted to teach their children religion.[63]

Notable German Muslims

A

  • Vaneeza Ahmad a Pakistani-German model
  • Mehmed Ali Pasha (marshal) was a German-born Ottoman soldier

B

  • Kristiane Backer a German television presenter, television journalist and author
  • Atif Bashir, footballer, plays for Barry Town in the Welsh Football League First Division.
  • Aslı Bayram a German actor and writer and an honorary Ambassador for Crime Prevention by the Justice Ministry Hessen, Germany
  • Karim Bellarabi, German football player
  • Danny Blum, German Soccer player

C

  • Denis Cuspert a German militant Islamist and former rapper
  • Emre Can a German football player

D

  • Sevim Dağdelen a German politician and a member of the German parliament Bundestag
  • Mahmoud Dahoud a German football player
  • Ekin Deligöz a Turkish-German politician and a member of the German parliament Bundestag

E

  • Khalid El-Masri
  • Ibrahim El-Zayat a European Muslim activist in Germany and has been a functionary in many important Islamic organizations in Germany, Europe, and Saudi Arabia.

F

  • Abdoldjavad Falaturi was a German scholar of Iranian origin

G

  • Cemile Giousouf a German politician and a member of the German parliament Bundestag
  • Fritz Grobba was a German diplomat during the interwar period and World War II
  • Karim Guédé a football player
  • İlkay Gündoğan a German football player

H

  • Murad Wilfried Hofmann a prominent German diplomat and author
  • Hadayatullah Hübsch German writer and journalist
  • Ashiq Hussain, Neuroscientist, Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology

K

  • Lamya Kaddor a German writer and known for introducing Islamic education in German in public schools in Germany
  • Jawed Karim a German-American Internet entrepreneur
  • Elsa Kazi was a German writer of one-act plays, short stories, novels and history, and a poet
  • Hasnain Kazim an author and journalist, correspondent of the German news magazine Der Spiegel and Spiegel Online
  • Necla Kelek a German feminist and social scientist
  • Navid Kermani a German writer and a scholar of Islam
  • Sami Khedira, German Soccer player
  • Mouhanad Khorchide, Professor for Islamic theology at the University of Münster.
  • Sead Kolašinac a Bosnian professional footballer

L

  • Mojib Latif, Professor, meteorologist and oceanographer
  • Johann von Leers was a member of the Waffen SS in Nazi Germany, where he was also a professor known for his anti-Jewish polemics

M

  • Jamal Malik, Professor of Islamic Studies and chair of Religious Studies, University of Erfurt, Germany
  • Shkodran Mustafi a German professional footballer

N

  • Adam Neuser was a popular pastor and theologian
  • Omid Nouripour an Iranian-German politician and a member of the German parliament Bundestag

O

  • Susanne Osthoff a German archaeologist
  • Cem Özdemir a German politician and a member of the German parliament Bundestag since 2013 and between 1994 and 2002 and of the European Parliament between 2004 and 2009
  • Mesut Özil, German Football player
  • Aydan Özoğuz a German politician and a member of the German parliament Bundestag

S

  • Leroy Sané a German football player

T

  • Bassam Tibi a political scientist and Professor of International Relations[64]

V

  • Pierre Vogel (born 1978), also known as Abu Hamza[65] ({{lang-ar|أبو حمزة}}), German Salafi Islamist[66] preacher and former professional boxer
W
  • Linda Wenzel, a German schoolgirl who went missing in 2016 after converting to Islam and joining Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant[67]

German Orientalists

  • Annemarie Schimmel

See also

{{Portal|Germany|Islam}}
  • Islamic Centre Hamburg
  • Islamic dress in Europe
  • List of mosques in Germany
  • Religion in Germany
  • Turks in Germany

References

1. ^"Rauf Ceylan: Muslims in Germany: Religious and Political Challenges and Perspectives in the Diaspora,
2. ^{{cite news|title=Census reveals German population lower than thought|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22727898|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=31 May 2013|date=2013-05-31}}
3. ^of BAMF 14. December 2016, retrieved 15. December 2016
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4419533,00.html|title=Studie: Deutlich mehr Muslime in Deutschland - DW - 23.06.2009|first=Deutsche Welle|last=(www.dw.com)|date=|website=DW.COM|accessdate=3 April 2018}}
5. ^Frank Gesemann. "Die Integration junger Muslime in Deutschland. Interkultureller Dialog - Islam und Gesellschaft Nr. 5 (year of 2006). Friedrich Ebert Foundation, on p. 8 - the document is written in German
6. ^REMID Data of "Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst" retrieved 16 January 2015
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13. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.emz-berlin.de/projekte_e/pj20_1E.htm|title=emz-berlin.de|author=|date=|website=www.emz-berlin.de|accessdate=3 April 2018}}
14. ^Frederick the Great's Army Albert Seaton. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Gtq3GmjfgacC&printsec=frontcover&dq=frederick+the+great+army&hl=de&sa=X&ei=mlb-Tvu7KYPT4QSevdCNCA&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=frederick%20the%20great%20army&f=false Islam and Muslims in Germany]. Osprey Publishing. {{ISBN|0-85045-151-5}}
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16. ^"Rauf Ceylan: Immigration and Socio-Spatial Segregation - Opportunities and Risks of Ethnic Self-Organisation,
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21. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/news/panorama/religion-bundesregierung-will-geldfluesse-an-radikale-moscheen-kontrollieren-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-181228-99-372039|title=Bundesregierung will Geldflüsse an radikale Moscheen kontrollieren - Panorama-News|last=Germany|first=Süddeutsche de GmbH, Munich|website=Süddeutsche.de|language=de|access-date=2018-12-29}}
22. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 "Mitgliederzahlen: Islam", in: Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst|Religionswissenschaftliche Medien- und Informationsdienst e. V. (Abbreviation: REMID), Retrieved 27 January 2016
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29. ^Ahmadiyya Muslim Mosques Around the World, pg. 44
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31. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/25/ibn-rushd-goethe-mosque-berlin-seyran-ates-egypt-fatwa-burqa-niqab|title=Liberal Berlin mosque to stay open despite fatwa from Egypt|last=Oltermann|first=Philip|date=2017-06-25|website=the Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-04-30}}
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35. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ifop.com/?option=com_publication&type=poll&id=1365%5D%5Bhttp://www.ifop.com/media/poll/1365-1-study_file.pdf%5D,|title=Ifop - Regard croisé France/Allemagne sur l’Islam|author=|date=|website=www.ifop.com|accessdate=3 April 2018}}
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39. ^https://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/EN/2015/01/rs20150127_1bvr047110en.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4
40. ^{{cite web|url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/germany|title=Germany|website=|publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs|date=|accessdate=2011-12-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012004817/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/germany|archive-date=12 October 2013|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}} See drop-down essay on "Religious Freedom in Germany"
41. ^{{cite journal|url=https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/07MUNICH646_a.html|title=Proposed Bavarian Islamic Academy Highlights Challenges of Muslim Integration|author=|date=December 18, 2007 |publisher=|accessdate=3 April 2018|via=WikiLeaks PlusD}}
42. ^Jan Felix Engelhardt, "On Insiderism and Muslim Epistemic Communities in the German and US Study of Islam", The Muslim World No 4, 2016, p. 740-758
43. ^{{Cite news|url=http://www.faz.net/1.490007|title=Studie des Innenministeriums: „Viele junge Muslime gewaltbereit“|work=FAZ.NET|access-date=2018-11-24|language=de|issn=0174-4909}}
44. ^Liljeberg Research International: [https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf Deutsch-Türkische Lebens und Wertewelten 2012] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011112234/https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf |date=11 October 2012 }}, July/August 2012, p. 67
45. ^Die Welt: [https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article108659406/Tuerkische-Migranten-hoffen-auf-muslimische-Mehrheit.html Türkische Migranten hoffen auf muslimische Mehrheit], 17 August 2012, retrieved 23 August 2012
46. ^The Jewish Press: In Germany, Turkish Muslims Hope for Muslim Majority, 27 August 2012, retrieved 27 September 2012
47. ^Deutsche Welle: "Why Germans distrust Islam" by Ulrike Hummel January 21, 2013
48. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.wzb.eu/en/press-release/islamic-fundamentalism-is-widely-spread|title=Islamic fundamentalism is widely spread - WZB|author=|date=|website=www.wzb.eu|accessdate=3 April 2018}}
49. ^Liljeberg Research International: [https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf Deutsch-Türkische Lebens und Wertewelten 2012] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011112234/https://d171.keyingress.de/multimedia/document/228.pdf |date=11 October 2012 }}, July/August 2012, p. 68
50. ^Die Welt: [https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article108659406/Tuerkische-Migranten-hoffen-auf-muslimische-Mehrheit.html Türkische Migranten hoffen auf muslimische Mehrheit], 17 August 2012, retrieved 23 August 2012
51. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.verfassungsschutz.bayern.de/islamismus/definition/erscheinungsformen/salafismus/index.html|title=Salafismus|website=www.verfassungsschutz.bayern.de|language=de|access-date=2018-07-22}}
52. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/arbeitsfelder/af-islamismus-und-islamistischer-terrorismus/was-ist-islamismus/salafistische-bestrebungen|title=Salafistische Bestrebungen Inhalte und Ziele salafistischer Ideologie|last=|first=|date=|website=BfV|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115163049/http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/arbeitsfelder/af-islamismus-und-islamistischer-terrorismus/was-ist-islamismus/salafistische-bestrebungen|archive-date=15 January 2018|dead-url=|access-date=22 July 2018}}
53. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.focus.de/politik/deutschland/gewaltbereite-islamisten-erstmals-mehr-als-10-000-salafisten-in-deutschland_id_6863813.html|title=Gewaltbereite Islamisten: Erstmals mehr als 10.000 Salafisten in Deutschland|last=Online|first=FOCUS|work=FOCUS Online|access-date=2018-07-22|language=de}}
54. ^1 2 {{Cite news|url=http://www.bpb.de/politik/extremismus/islamismus/268726/orte-der-islamistischen-radikalisierung|title=Orte der islamistischen Radikalisierung {{!}} bpb|last=Jaschke|first=Hans-Gerd|date=|work=bpb.de|access-date=2018-12-01|language=de|quote=Die beiden Verbote zeigen, dass in salafistischen Moscheen nicht nur auf religiöse Art rekrutiert und agiert wird, sondern in einigen von ihnen schwere Straftaten bis hin zu terroristischen Aktionen geplant wurden.}}
55. ^{{Cite news|url=https://rp-online.de/nrw/panorama/nrw-salafisten-agitieren-in-55-moscheen_aid-18340503|title=Verfassungsschutz: Salafisten agitieren in NRW in 55 Moscheen|last=ONLINE|first=RP|work=RP ONLINE|access-date=2018-11-18|language=de}}
56. ^1 2 3 *German Jihad: On the Internationalisation of Islamist Terrorism by Guido Steinberg. Columbia University Press, 2013
57. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/islamismus-verdacht-verfassungsschutz-beobachtet-etwa-moscheen-in-deutschland-1.2976423|title=Verfassungsschutz beobachtet etwa 90 Moscheen in Deutschland|date=2016|work=sueddeutsche.de|access-date=2018-11-18|language=de|issn=0174-4917}}
58. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.welt.de/politik/deutschland/article176069850/Justiz-Top-Gefaehrder-aus-Hessen-abgeschoben.html|title=Justiz: Top-Gefährder aus Hessen abgeschoben|last=Flade|first=Florian|date=2018-05-04|work=DIE WELT|access-date=2018-05-05}}
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60. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3918670,00.html|title=Germany bans group accused of Hamas links|author=|date=7 December 2010|website=ynetnews.com|accessdate=3 April 2018}}
61. ^1 {{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/diplomacy-defense/germany-outlaws-ihh-over-claimed-hamas-links-1.301483|title=Germany Outlaws Charity Over Alleged Hamas Links|last=DPA|date=12 July 2010|publisher=|accessdate=3 April 2018|via=Haaretz|newspaper=Haaretz}}
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63. ^1 Frank Gesemann. "Die Integration junger Muslime in Deutschland. Interkultureller Dialog - Islam und Gesellschaft Nr. 5 (year of 2006). Friedrich Ebert Stiftung", on p. 9 - the document is written in German
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66. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/protests-in-northern-german-city-against-salafist-preacher-vogel/a-19525193|title=Protests in northern German city against Salafist preacher Vogel|publisher=Deutsche Welle|accessdate=30 October 2016}}
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==Further reading==

  • {{cite journal

|last = Amir-Moazami
|first = Schirin
|authorlink =
|date= December 2005
|title = Muslim Challenges to the Secular Consensus: A German Case Study
|journal = Journal of Contemporary European Studies
|volume = 13
|issue = 3
|pages = 267–286
|pmid =
|doi = 10.1080/14782800500378359
|id =
|url =
|language =
|format =
|accessdate =
|laysummary =
|laysource =
|laydate =
|quote =
}}

External links

  • Ahmadiyya Muslim Community Deutschland
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20051216103652/http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/DIslam.html Links: Islam in Germany]
  • [https://archive.is/20060206131920/http://www.emunion.org/ Germany: European Muslim Union with its offices in Granada, Spain, Bonn, Istanbul and Sarajevo]
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20110218153506/http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1213871336678&pagename=Zone-English-Euro_Muslims%2FEMELayout A German Initiative to Bridge the Gap]
{{Islam in Europe}}{{Use DMY dates|date=November 2014}}{{Use British English|date=November 2014}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Islam In Germany}}

2 : Islam in Germany|Islam by country
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