词条 | Go (programming language) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
释义 |
| name = Go | logo = Go Logo Aqua.svg | paradigm = Multi-paradigm: concurrent, functional,[1] imperative, object-oriented[2] | year = {{start date and age|2009|11|10}} | designer = Robert Griesemer Rob Pike Ken Thompson | developer = The Go Authors[3] | latest_release_version = 1.12.1 | latest_release_date = {{start date and age|2019|03|14}}[3] | latest_test_version = | latest_test_date = | typing = Inferred, static, strong, structural[5][6] | implementations = gc, gccgo | programming language = Go, assembly language (gc); C++ (gccgo) | dialects = | influenced_by = Alef, APL,[7] BCPL,[7] C, CSP, Limbo, Modula, Newsqueak, Oberon, occam, Pascal,[10] Smalltalk[8] | influenced = Crystal | operating_system = DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, NetBSD, OpenBSD,[9] Plan 9,[10] Solaris, Windows | license = BSD-style[11] + patent grant[12] | website = {{Official URL}} | file_ext = .go }}Go (often referred to as Golang[13]) is a statically typed, compiled programming language designed at Google[14] by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson.[15] Go is syntactically similar to C, but with memory safety, garbage collection, structural typing,[5] and CSP-style concurrency.[16] There are two major implementations:
A third compiler, GopherJS,[22] compiles Go to JavaScript for front-end web development. HistoryGo was designed at Google in 2007 to improve programming productivity in an era of multicore, networked machines and large codebases.[23] The designers wanted to address criticism of other languages in use at Google, but keep their useful characteristics:[24]
The designers were primarily motivated by their shared dislike of C++.[26][27][28] Go was publicly announced in November 2009,[29] and version 1.0 was released in March 2012.[30][31] Go is widely used in production at Google[32] and in many other organizations and open-source projects. In November 2016, the Go and Go Mono fonts which are sans-serif and monospaced respectively were released by type designers Charles Bigelow and Kris Holmes. Both were designed to legible with a large x-height, distinct letterforms and conformity to DIN 1450.[33][34] In April 2018, the original logo was replaced with a stylized GO slanting right with trailing streamlines. However, the gopher mascot remained the same.[35] In August 2018, the Go principal contributors published two ″draft designs″ for new language features, Generics and Error Handling, and asked Go users to submit feedback on them.[36][37] Lack of support for generic programming and the verbosity of error handling in Go 1.x had drawn considerable criticism. Version historyGo 1 guarantees compatibility[38] for the language specification and major parts of the standard library. All versions up to the current Go 1.11 release[39] have maintained this promise. Each major Go release is supported until there are two newer major releases.[40]
DesignGo is recognizably in the tradition of C, but makes many changes to improve brevity, simplicity, and safety. The language consists of:
SyntaxGo's syntax includes changes from C aimed at keeping code concise and readable. A combined declaration/initialization operator was introduced that allows the programmer to write TypesGo has a number of built-in types, including numeric ones ({{mono|byte}}, {{mono|int64}}, {{mono|float32}}, etc.), booleans, and character strings ({{mono|string}}). Strings are immutable; built-in operators, and keywords (rather than functions) provide concatenation, comparison, and UTF-8 encoding/decoding.[51] Record types can be defined with the {{mono|struct}} keyword.[52] For each type {{mono|T}} and each non-negative integer constant {{mono|n}}, there is an array type denoted {{mono|[n]T}}; arrays of differing lengths are thus of different types. Dynamic arrays are available as "slices", denoted {{mono|[]T}} for some type {{mono|T}}. These have a length and a capacity specifying when new memory needs to be allocated to expand the array. Several slices may share their underlying memory.{{r|append}}[53][54] Pointers are available for all types, and the pointer-to-{{mono|T}} type is denoted {{mono|*T}}. Address-taking and indirection use the {{mono|&}} and {{mono|*}} operators as in C, or happen implicitly through the method call or attribute access syntax.[55] There is no pointer arithmetic,{{efn|name=noPointerArith}} except via the special {{mono|unsafe.Pointer}} type in the standard library.[56]For a pair of types {{mono|K}}, {{mono|V}}, the type {{mono|map[K]V}} is the type of hash tables mapping type-{{mono|K}} keys to type//Go (programming language)#Concurrency">concurrent Go processes.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} Aside from its support for interfaces, Go's type system is nominal: the {{mono|type}} keyword can be used to define a new named type, which is distinct from other named types that have the same layout (in the case of a {{mono|struct}}, the same members in the same order). Some conversions between types (e.g., between the various integer types) are pre-defined and adding a new type may define additional conversions, but conversions between named types must always be invoked explicitly.[typed variable.{{r|balbaert}}{{rp|263–268}} In formal language, Go's interface system provides structural rather than nominal typing. Interfaces can embed other interfaces with the effect of creating a combined interface that is satisfied by exactly the types that implement the embedded interface and any methods that the newly defined interface adds.{{r|balbaert}}{{rp|270}} The Go standard library uses interfaces to provide genericity in several places, including the input/output system that is based on the concepts of {{mono|Reader}} and {{mono|Writer}}.{{r|balbaert}}{{rp|282–283}} Besides calling methods via interfaces, Go allows converting interface values to other types with a run-time type check. The language constructs to do so are the type assertion,[66] which checks against a single potential type, and the type switch,[67] which checks against multiple types.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} The empty interface Interface values are implemented using pointer to data and a second pointer to run-time type information.[69] Like some other types implemented using pointers in Go, interface values are Package systemIn Go's package system, each package has a path (e.g., Proposals exist to introduce a proper package management solution for Go similar to Rust's cargo system or Node's npm system.[74] {{anchor|Concurrency}} Concurrency: goroutines and channelsThe Go language has built-in facilities, as well as library support, for writing concurrent programs. Concurrency refers not only to CPU parallelism, but also to asynchrony: letting slow operations like a database or network-read run while the program does other work, as is common in event-based servers.[75] The primary concurrency construct is the goroutine, a type of light-weight process. A function call prefixed with the {{mono|go}} keyword starts a function in a new goroutine. The language specification does not specify how goroutines should be implemented, but current implementations multiplex a Go process's goroutines onto a smaller set of operating system threads, similar to the scheduling performed in Erlang.{{r|phrasebook}}{{rp|10}} While a standard library package featuring most of the classical concurrency control structures (mutex locks, etc.) is available,{{r|phrasebook}}{{rp|151–152}} idiomatic concurrent programs instead prefer channels, which provide send messages between goroutines.[76] Optional buffers store messages in FIFO order{{r|summerfield}}{{rp|43}} and allow sending goroutines to proceed before their messages are received.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} Channels are typed, so that a channel of type {{mono|chan T}} can only be used to transfer messages of type {{mono|T}}. Special syntax is used to operate on them; {{mono|<-ch}} is an expression that causes the executing goroutine to block until a value comes in over the channel {{mono|ch}}, while {{mono|ch <- x}} sends the value {{mono|x}} (possibly blocking until another goroutine receives the value). The built-in {{mono|switch}}-like {{mono|select}} statement can be used to implement non-blocking communication on multiple channels; see below for an example. Go has a memory model describing how goroutines must use channels or other operations to safely share data.[77] The existence of channels sets Go apart from actor model-style concurrent languages like Erlang, where messages are addressed directly to actors (corresponding to goroutines). The actor style can be simulated in Go by maintaining a one-to-one correspondence between goroutines and channels, but the language allows multiple goroutines to share a channel or a single goroutine to send and receive on multiple channels.{{r|phrasebook}}{{rp|147}} From these tools one can build concurrent constructs like worker pools, pipelines (in which, say, a file is decompressed and parsed as it downloads), background calls with timeout, "fan-out" parallel calls to a set of services, and others.[78] Channels have also found uses further from the usual notion of interprocess communication, like serving as a concurrency-safe list of recycled buffers,[79] implementing coroutines (which helped inspire the name goroutine),[80] and implementing iterators.[81] Concurrency-related structural conventions of Go (channels and alternative channel inputs) are derived from Tony Hoare's communicating sequential processes model. Unlike previous concurrent programming languages such as Occam or Limbo (a language on which Go co-designer Rob Pike worked),[82] Go does not provide any built-in notion of safe or verifiable concurrency.[83] While the communicating-processes model is favored in Go, it is not the only one: all goroutines in a program share a single address space. This means that mutable objects and pointers can be shared between goroutines; see {{slink||Lack of race condition safety}}, below.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} Suitability for parallel programmingAlthough Go's concurrency features are not aimed primarily at parallel processing,{{r|concurrency-is-not}} they can be used to program shared memory multi-processor machines. Various studies have been done into the effectiveness of this approach.[84] One of these studies compared the size (in lines of code) and speed of programs written by a seasoned programmer not familiar with the language and corrections to these programs by a Go expert (from Google's development team), doing the same for Chapel, Cilk and Intel TBB. The study found that the non-expert tended to write divide-and-conquer algorithms with one {{mono|go}} statement per recursion, while the expert wrote distribute-work-synchronize programs using one goroutine per processor. The expert's programs were usually faster, but also longer.[85] Lack of race condition safetyThere are no restrictions on how goroutines access shared data, making race conditions possible. Specifically, unless a program explicitly synchronizes via channels or other means, writes from one goroutine might be partly, entirely, or not at all visible to another, often with no guarantees about ordering of writes.[83] Furthermore, Go's internal data structures like interface values, slice headers, hash tables, and string headers are not immune to race conditions, so type and memory safety can be violated in multithreaded programs that modify shared instances of those types without synchronization.[86][87] Instead of language support, safe concurrent programming thus relies on conventions; for example, Chisnall recommends an idiom called "aliases xor mutable", meaning that passing a mutable value (or pointer) over a channel signals a transfer of ownership over the value to its receiver.{{r|phrasebook}}{{rp|155}} BinariesThe linker in the gc toolchain creates statically-linked binaries by default therefore all Go binaries include the Go runtime.[88][89] OmissionsGo deliberately omits certain features common in other languages, including (implementation) inheritance, generic programming, assertions,{{efn|Language FAQ "Why does Go not have assertions? …our experience has been that programmers use them as a crutch to avoid thinking about proper error handling and reporting…."[15]}} pointer arithmetic,{{efn|name=noPointerArith|Language FAQ "Why is there no pointer arithmetic? Safety … never derive an illegal address that succeeds incorrectly … using array indices can be as efficient as … pointer arithmetic … simplify the implementation of the garbage collector…."[15]}} implicit type conversions, untagged unions,{{efn|Language FAQ "Why are there no untagged unions…? [they] would violate Go's memory safety guarantees."[15]}} and tagged unions.{{efn|Language FAQ "Why does Go not have variant types? … We considered [them but] they overlap in confusing ways with interfaces…. [S]ome of what variant types address is already covered, … although not as elegantly."[15] (The tag of an interface type[90] is accessed with a type assertion[91]).}} The designers added only those facilities that all three agreed on.[92] Of the omitted language features, the designers explicitly argue against assertions and pointer arithmetic, while defending the choice to omit type inheritance as giving a more useful language, encouraging instead the use of interfaces to achieve dynamic dispatch{{efn|Questions "How do I get dynamic dispatch of methods?" and "Why is there no type inheritance?" in the language FAQ.[15]}} and composition to reuse code. Composition and delegation are in fact largely automated by {{mono|struct}} embedding; according to researchers Schmager et al., this feature "has many of the drawbacks of inheritance: it affects the public interface of objects, it is not fine-grained (i.e, no method-level control over embedding), methods of embedded objects cannot be hidden, and it is static", making it "not obvious" whether programmers will overuse it to the extent that programmers in other languages are reputed to overuse inheritance.[93] The designers express an openness to generic programming and note that built-in functions are in fact type-generic, but these are treated as special cases; Pike calls this a weakness that may at some point be changed.[94] The Google team built at least one compiler for an experimental Go dialect with generics, but did not release it.[95] They are also open to standardizing ways to apply code generation.[96] Initially omitted, the exception-like {{mono|panic}}/{{mono|recover}} mechanism was eventually added, which the Go authors advise using for unrecoverable errors such as those that should halt an entire program or server request, or as a shortcut to propagate errors up the stack within a package (but not across package boundaries; there, error returns are the standard API).[97][98][99][100] Style{{OR-section|date=January 2018}}The Go authors put substantial effort into influencing the style of Go programs:
ToolsThe main Go distribution includes tools for building, testing, and analyzing code:
It also includes profiling and debugging support, runtime instrumentation (for example, to track garbage collection pauses), and a race condition tester. An ecosystem of third-party tools adds to the standard distribution, such as ExamplesHello worldpackage main import "fmt" func main() { } ConcurrencyThe following simple program demonstrates Go's concurrency features to implement an asynchronous program. It launches two "goroutines" (lightweight threads): one waits for the user to type some text, while the other implements a timeout. The {{mono|select}} statement waits for either of these goroutines to send a message to the main routine, and acts on the first message to arrive (example adapted from David Chisnall book).[107]{{rp|152}} package main import ( "fmt" "time" ) func readword(ch chan string) { fmt.Println("Type a word, then hit Enter.") var word string fmt.Scanf("%s", &word) ch <- word } func timeout(t chan bool) { time.Sleep(5 * time.Second) t <- false } func main() { t := make(chan bool) go timeout(t) ch := make(chan string) go readword(ch) select { case word := <-ch: fmt.Println("Received", word) case <-t: fmt.Println("Timeout.") } } Applications{{Primary sources|section|date=November 2015}}Some notable open-source applications in Go include:[108]
Other notable companies and sites using Go (generally together with other languages, not exclusively) include:
ReceptionThe interface system, and the deliberate omission of inheritance, were praised by Michele Simionato, who likened these characteristics to those of Standard ML, calling it "a shame that no popular language has followed [this] particular route".[135] Dave Astels at Engine Yard wrote:[136] {{quote |Go is extremely easy to dive into. There are a minimal number of fundamental language concepts and the syntax is clean and designed to be clear and unambiguous.Go is still experimental and still a little rough around the edges.|sign=|source=}} Go was named Programming Language of the Year by the TIOBE Programming Community Index in its first year, 2009, for having a larger 12-month increase in popularity (in only 2 months, after its introduction in November) than any other language that year, and reached 13th place by January 2010,[137] surpassing established languages like Pascal. By June 2015, its ranking had dropped to below 50th in the index, placing it lower than COBOL and Fortran.[138] But as of January 2017, its ranking had surged to 13th, indicating significant growth in popularity and adoption. Go was awarded TIOBE programming language of the year 2016. Bruce Eckel has stated:[139]{{quote|The complexity of C++ (even more complexity has been added in the new C++), and the resulting impact on productivity, is no longer justified. All the hoops that the C++ programmer had to jump through in order to use a C-compatible language make no sense anymore -- they're just a waste of time and effort. Go makes much more sense for the class of problems that C++ was originally intended to solve.}}A 2011 evaluation of the language and its {{mono|gc}} implementation in comparison to C++ (GCC), Java and Scala by a Google engineer found: {{quote|Go offers interesting language features, which also allow for a concise and standardized notation. The compilers for this language are still immature, which reflects in both performance and binary sizes.|R. Hundt[140]}}The evaluation got a rebuttal from the Go development team. Ian Lance Taylor, who had improved the Go code for Hundt's paper, had not been aware of the intention to publish his code, and says that his version was "never intended to be an example of idiomatic or efficient Go"; Russ Cox then did optimize the Go code, as well as the C++ code, and got the Go code to run slightly faster than C++ and more than an order of magnitude faster than the code in the paper.[141] Naming disputeOn November 10, 2009, the day of the general release of the language, Francis McCabe, developer of the Go! programming language (note the exclamation point), requested a name change of Google's language to prevent confusion with his language, which he had spent 10 years developing.[142] McCabe raised concerns that "the 'big guy' will end up steam-rollering over" him, and this concern resonated with the more than 120 developers who commented on Google's official issues thread saying they should change the name, with some[143] even saying the issue contradicts Google's motto of: Don't be evil.[144] On October 12, 2010, the issue was closed by Google developer Russ Cox (@rsc) with the custom status "Unfortunate" accompanied by the following comment: "There are many computing products and services named Go. In the 11 months since our release, there has been minimal confusion of the two languages."[144] CriticismsGo critics assert that:
The designers argue these omissions were simplifications that contribute to Go's strength[149] (See {{section link||Omissions}} above). See also{{Portal|Free and open-source software}}
Notes{{Notelist}}References{{Hatnote|This article incorporates material from the official Go tutorial, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license.}}1. ^{{cite web|title="First-Class Functions in Go"|quote="Go supports ... a functional programming style in a strongly typed language."|url=https://golang.org/doc/codewalk/functions/|accessdate=November 14, 2018}} 2. ^{{cite web|title=Go: code that grows with grace|quote="Go is Object Oriented, but not in the usual way."|url=https://talks.golang.org/2012/chat.slide#5|accessdate=June 24, 2018}} 3. ^{{cite web|title=Release History - The Go Programming Language|url=https://golang.org/doc/devel/release.html#go1.12.minor|accessdate=17 March 2019}} 4. ^{{cite web|title=Release History - The Go Programming Language|url=https://golang.org/dl/|website=golang.org|accessdate=August 8, 2016}} 5. ^1 {{cite web |title=Why doesn't Go have "implements" declarations? |url=https://golang.org/doc/faq#implements_interface |work=golang.org |accessdate=October 1, 2015}} 6. ^{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/rob_pike/status/546973312543227904 |title=Rob Pike on Twitter |last=Pike |first=Rob |date=December 22, 2014 |accessdate=March 13, 2016 |quote=Go has structural typing, not duck typing. Full interface satisfaction is checked and required. }} 7. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://talks.golang.org/2014/hellogophers.slide#21 |title=Hello Gophers |last=Pike |first=Rob |date=April 24, 2014 |accessdate=March 11, 2016 }} 8. ^{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Go|url=https://talks.golang.org/2015/gophercon-goevolution.slide#19|accessdate=September 26, 2015}} 9. ^{{cite web |url=http://ports.su/lang/go |title=lang/go: go-1.4 – Go programming language |work=OpenBSD ports |date=December 23, 2014 |accessdate=January 19, 2015}} 10. ^{{cite web|url=http://go-lang.cat-v.org/os-ports|title=Go Porting Efforts|date=January 12, 2010|work=Go Language Resources|publisher=cat-v|accessdate=January 18, 2010}} 11. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://golang.org/LICENSE |title=Text file LICENSE |work=The Go Programming Language |publisher=Google |accessdate=October 5, 2012}} 12. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/PATENTS |title=Additional IP Rights Grant |last= |first= |date= |work=The Go Programming Language |publisher=Google |accessdate=October 5, 2012}} 13. ^{{cite web|url=https://tip.golang.org/doc/faq#go_or_golang|title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)|accessdate=October 6, 2018}} 14. ^{{cite news|url=https://techcrunch.com/2009/11/10/google-go-language/|title=Google’s Go: A New Programming Language That’s Python Meets C++|last=Kincaid |first=Jason |date=November 10, 2009 |newspaper=TechCrunch |accessdate=January 18, 2010}} 15. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite web |url=http://golang.org/doc/go_faq.html |title=Language Design FAQ |date=January 16, 2010 |work=golang.org |accessdate=February 27, 2010}} 16. ^{{cite web |title=Google Go boldly goes where no code has gone before |website=The Register |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/05/05/google_go/ |date=May 5, 2011 |first=Cade |last=Metz}} 17. ^{{cite web|url=https://golang.org/doc/go1.5#implementation|title=Go 1.5 Release Notes|accessdate=January 28, 2016|quote=The compiler and runtime are now implemented in Go and assembler, without C.}} 18. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/08/googles-house-programming-language-now-runs-phones/|title=Google's In-House Programming Language Now Runs on Phones|date=August 19, 2015|website=wired.com}} 19. ^{{cite web|url=https://blog.golang.org/go1.11 |title=Go 11.1 is Released - The Go Blog |date=August 24, 2018 |accessdate=January 1, 2019}} 20. ^{{cite web|url=http://golang.org/doc/go_faq.html#Implementation|title=FAQ: Implementation|date=January 16, 2010|work=golang.org|accessdate=January 18, 2010}} 21. ^{{cite web|url=https://gcc.gnu.org/install/configure.html|title=Installing GCC: Configuration|accessdate=December 3, 2011|quote=Ada, Go and Objective-C++ are not default languages}} 22. ^https://github.com/gopherjs/gopherjs 23. ^{{cite web|title=Go at Google: Language Design in the Service of Software Engineering|url=https://talks.golang.org/2012/splash.article|accessdate=October 8, 2018}} 24. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee380/Abstracts/100428.html |title= Another Go at Language Design |last= Pike |first= Rob |date= April 28, 2010 |work= Stanford EE Computer Systems Colloquium |publisher= Stanford University}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7VcArS4Wpqk Video available]. 25. ^{{cite web|url= https://golang.org/doc/faq#different_syntax|title= Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) - The Go Programming Language|work= golang.org|accessdate= February 26, 2016}} 26. ^{{cite web |url= http://www.drdobbs.com/open-source/interview-with-ken-thompson/229502480 |title= Dr. Dobb's: Interview with Ken Thompson |author= Andrew Binstock |date= May 18, 2011 |accessdate= February 7, 2014}} 27. ^{{cite web |url= http://commandcenter.blogspot.mx/2012/06/less-is-exponentially-more.html |title= Less is exponentially more |year= 2012 |last= Pike |first= Rob}} 28. ^{{cite web |url= https://talks.golang.org/2015/gophercon-goevolution.slide#4 |title= The Evolution of Go |year= 2015 |author= Robert Griesemer}} 29. ^{{cite web|last1=Griesemer|first1=Robert|last2=Pike|first2=Rob|last3=Thompson|first3=Ken|last4=Taylor|first4=Ian|last5=Cox|first5=Russ|last6=Kim|first6=Jini|last7=Langley|first7=Adam|title=Hey! Ho! Let's Go!|url=https://opensource.googleblog.com/2009/11/hey-ho-lets-go.html|website=Google Open Source|publisher=Google|accessdate=May 17, 2018}} 30. ^{{cite news| last1 = Shankland| first1 = Stephen| title = Google's Go language turns one, wins a spot at YouTube: The lower-level programming language has matured enough to sport the 1.0 version number. And it's being used for real work at Google.| url = https://www.cnet.com/news/googles-go-language-turns-one-wins-a-spot-at-youtube/| department = News| website = CNet| publisher = CBS Interactive Inc| publication-date = March 30, 2012| access-date = August 6, 2017| quote = Google has released version 1 of its Go programming language, an ambitious attempt to improve upon giants of the lower-level programming world such as C and C++.}} 31. ^{{cite web|url= https://golang.org/doc/devel/release.html|title= Release History}} 32. ^{{cite news|url= https://golang.org/doc/faq#internal_usage|title= Go FAQ: Is Google using Go internally?|accessdate= March 9, 2013}} 33. ^{{cite web|url=https://blog.golang.org/go-fonts|title=Go fonts – The Go Blog|publisher=Go|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=12 March 2019}} 34. ^{{cite web|url=https://go.googlesource.com/image/+/master/font/gofont/ttfs/|title=Go Font TTFs|publisher=Google|accessdate=April 2, 2019}} 35. ^{{Cite web|url=https://blog.golang.org/go-brand|title=Go's New Brand – The Go Blog|website=blog.golang.org|access-date=2018-11-09}} 36. ^{{cite web |url= https://go.googlesource.com/proposal/+/master/design/go2draft.md |title= Go 2 Draft Designs |accessdate= September 12, 2018}} 37. ^{{cite web |url= https://blog.golang.org/go2draft |title= The Go Blog: Go 2 Draft Designs |date= August 28, 2018}} 38. ^{{cite web | url=https://golang.org/doc/go1compat | title=Go 1 and the Future of Go Programs}} 39. ^{{cite web | url=https://golang.org/doc/go1.11#introduction | title=Go 1.11 Release Notes}} 40. ^{{cite web | url=https://golang.org/doc/devel/release.html#policy | title=Release History}} 41. ^{{Cite web|url=https://golang.org/doc/devel/release.html|title=Release History - The Go Programming Language|website=golang.org|access-date=August 24, 2018}} 42. ^https://golang.org/doc/go1.11 43. ^https://apisecurity.io/mutual-tls-authentication-vulnerability-in-go-cve-2018-16875/ 44. ^{{cite web|last=Pike|first=Rob|title=The Go Programming Language|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKnDgT73v8s|publisher=YouTube|accessdate=July 1, 2011}} 45. ^{{cite video |people=Rob Pike |date=November 10, 2009 |title=The Go Programming Language |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKnDgT73v8s#t=8m53 |format=flv |medium=Tech talk |publisher=Google |time=8:53}} 46. ^Download and install packages and dependencies - go - The Go Programming Language; see godoc.org for addresses and documentation of some packages 47. ^{{cite web |url=http://godoc.org |title=GoDoc |work=godoc.org}} 48. ^Rob Pike, on The Changelog podcast 49. ^{{cite web |url=https://golang.org/ref/spec#Semicolons |title=Go Programming Language Specification, §Semicolons|work=golang.org}} 50. ^{{cite web |url=https://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#semicolons |title=Effective Go, §Semicolons|work=golang.org}} 51. ^Rob Pike, Strings, bytes, runes and characters in Go, October 23, 2013 52. ^{{cite web |last1=Doxsey |first1=Caleb |title=Structs and Interfaces — An Introduction to Programming in Go |url=https://www.golang-book.com/books/intro/9 |website=www.golang-book.com |accessdate=15 October 2018}} 53. ^Andrew Gerrand, Go Slices: usage and internals 54. ^The Go Authors, Effective Go: Slices 55. ^The Go authors [https://golang.org/ref/spec#Selectors Selectors - The Go Programming Language Specification] and [https://golang.org/ref/spec#Calls Calls - The Go Programming Language Specification] 56. ^{{cite web |url=https://golang.org/ref/spec#Package_unsafe |title=Go Programming Language Specification, §Package unsafe|work=golang.org}} 57. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/ref/spec#Assignability |title=The Go Programming Language Specification |work=golang.org}} 58. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/ref/spec#Constants |title=The Go Programming Language Specification |work=golang.org}} 59. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/ref/spec#Calls |title=The Go Programming Language Specification |work=golang.org}} 60. ^{{cite book |title=Programming in Go: Creating Applications for the 21st Century |first=Mark |last=Summerfield |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=2012}} 61. ^{{cite book |title=The Way to Go: A Thorough Introduction to the Go Programming Language |first=Ivo |last=Balbaert |publisher=iUniverse |year=2012}} 62. ^{{cite web |url=https://talks.golang.org/2015/gophercon-goevolution.slide#19 |title=The Evolution of Go |website=talks.golang.org |access-date=March 13, 2016}} 63. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.drdobbs.com/architecture-and-design/duck-typing-and-the-go-programming-langu/228701527 |title=Duck Typing and the Go Programming Language |last=Diggins |first=Christopher |publisher=Dr. Dobb's |date=November 24, 2009 |accessdate=March 10, 2016 }} 64. ^{{cite web |url=https://medium.com/@matryer/golang-advent-calendar-day-one-duck-typing-a513aaed544d#.ebm7j81xu |title=Duck typing in Go |last=Ryer |first=Mat |date=December 1, 2015 |accessdate=March 10, 2016}} 65. ^{{cite web|url=https://golang.org/doc/faq|title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) - The Go Programming Language|website=golang.org}} 66. ^{{cite web|url=http://golang.org/ref/spec#Type_assertions|title=The Go Programming Language Specification|work=golang.org}} 67. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/ref/spec#Type_switches |title=The Go Programming Language Specification |work=golang.org}} 68. ^reflect.ValueOf(i interface{}) converts an interface{} to a reflect.Value that can be further inspected69. ^{{cite web |url=http://research.swtch.com/interfaces |title=Go Data Structures: Interfaces |accessdate=November 15, 2012}} 70. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/ref/spec#Interface_types |title=The Go Programming Language Specification |work=golang.org}} 71. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/doc/go_tutorial.html |title=A Tutorial for the Go Programming Language |work=The Go Programming Language |publisher=Google |accessdate=March 10, 2013 |quote=In Go the rule about visibility of information is simple: if a name (of a top-level type, function, method, constant or variable, or of a structure field or method) is capitalized, users of the package may see it. Otherwise, the name and hence the thing being named is visible only inside the package in which it is declared.}} 72. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/cmd/go/#hdr-Download_and_install_packages_and_dependencies |title=go - The Go Programming Language |work=golang.org}} 73. ^{{cite web |url=https://golang.org/doc/code.html |title=How to Write Go Code |work=golang.org |quote=The packages from the standard library are given short import paths such as "fmt" and "net/http". For your own packages, you must choose a base path that is unlikely to collide with future additions to the standard library or other external libraries. If you keep your code in a source repository somewhere, then you should use the root of that source repository as your base path. For instance, if you have a Example account at example.com/user, that should be your base path}} 74. ^{{cite web |url=https://docs.google.com/document/d/18tNd8r5DV0yluCR7tPvkMTsWD_lYcRO7NhpNSDymRr8/edit?pref=2&pli=1 |title=Go Packaging Proposal Process}} 75. ^Rob Pike, Concurrency is not Parallelism 76. ^{{cite web |url=http://golang.org/doc/effective_go.html#sharing |title=Effective Go |work=golang.org}} 77. ^{{cite web|url=http://golang.org/ref/mem|title=The Go Memory Model|accessdate=April 10, 2017}} 78. ^{{cite web |url=http://talks.golang.org/2012/concurrency.slide |title=Go Concurrency Patterns |work=golang.org}} 79. ^John Graham-Cumming, Recycling Memory Buffers in Go 80. ^{{cite web|url=http://golang.org/doc/play/tree.go|title=tree.go|publisher=}} 81. ^Ewen Cheslack-Postava, Iterators in Go 82. ^Brian W. 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First International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communications |year=2010 |url=http://www.ualr.edu/pxtang/papers/acc10.pdf}} 85. ^{{cite conference |last1=Nanz |first1=Sebastian |first2=Scott |last2=West |first3=Kaue |last3=Soares Da Silveira |title=Examining the expert gap in parallel programming |conference=Euro-Par 2013 |url=http://se.inf.ethz.ch/people/west/expert-gap-europar-2013.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.368.6137}} 86. ^Russ Cox, Off to the Races 87. ^{{cite web |first=Rob |last=Pike |authorlink=Rob Pike |date=October 25, 2012 |title=Go at Google: Language Design in the Service of Software Engineering |url=http://talks.golang.org/2012/splash.article |publisher=Google, Inc.}} "There is one important caveat: Go is not purely memory safe in the presence of concurrency." 88. ^https://golang.org/doc/faq 89. ^https://hackernoon.com/a-story-of-a-fat-go-binary-20edc6549b97 90. ^{{cite web |url=https://golang.org/ref/spec#Interface_types |title=Go Programming Language Specification, §Interface types|work=golang.org}} 91. ^{{cite web |url=https://golang.org/ref/spec#Type_assertion |title=Go Programming Language Specification, §Type assertions|work=golang.org}} 92. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1623555|website=informIT|title=All Systems Are Go|date=August 17, 2010|access-date=June 21, 2018}} 93. ^{{cite conference |last1=Schmager |first1=Frank |first2=Nicholas |last2=Cameron |first3=James |last3=Noble |title=GoHotDraw: evaluating the Go programming language with design patterns |conference=Evaluation and Usability of Programming Languages and Tools |publisher=ACM |year=2010}} 94. ^{{cite web |title=Arrays, slices (and strings): The mechanics of 'append' |first=Rob |last=Pike |website=The Go Blog |url=http://blog.golang.org/slices |date=September 26, 2013 |accessdate=March 7, 2015}} 95. ^{{cite web |title=E2E: Erik Meijer and Robert Griesemer – Going Go |website=Channel 9 |publisher=Microsoft |date=May 7, 2012 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2018}} 104. ^{{cite web |title=Errors Are Values |url=http://blog.golang.org/errors-are-values |accessdate=July 3, 2018}} 105. ^{{cite web|url=https://github.com/visualfc/liteide|title=visualfc/liteide|website=GitHub}} 106. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.jetbrains.com/go/|title=GoLand: A Clever IDE to Go by JetBrains|website=JetBrains}} 107. ^{{cite book |title=The Go Programming Language Phrasebook |first=David |last=Chisnall |publisher=Addison-Wesley |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scyH562VXZUC}} 108. ^{{Citation|title=avelino/awesome-go: A curated list of awesome Go frameworks, libraries and software|url=https://github.com/avelino/awesome-go|accessdate=January 10, 2018}} 109. ^{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum|title=Official Go implementation of the Ethereum protocol|publisher=ethereum|website=GitHub}} 110. ^{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/ipfs/go-ipfs|title=ipfs/go-ipfs|website=GitHub|language=en|access-date=June 1, 2018}} 111. ^{{Citation|title=Lightning Developers Network installation guide|url=http://dev.lightning.community/guides/installation/}} 112. ^{{Cite news|url=https://cacoo.com/blog/test-driven-development-in-go/|title=Test driven development in Go {{!}} Cacoo|date=July 29, 2016|work=Cacoo|access-date=June 1, 2018|language=en-US}} 113. ^{{cite web |url=https://github.com/chango/ |title=Chango |work=GitHub}} 114. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.javaworld.com/article/2455358/cloud-computing/review-cloud-foundry-brings-power-and-polish-to-paas.html|title=Review: Cloud Foundry brings power and polish to PaaS|last=Heller|first=Martin|date=2014-07-17|website=JavaWorld|language=en|access-date=2019-01-22}} 115. ^John Graham-Cumming, Go at CloudFlare 116. ^John Graham-Cumming, What we've been doing with Go 117. ^{{cite web |url=https://blog.gopheracademy.com/birthday-bash-2014/go-at-coreos/ |title=Go at CoreOS}} 118. ^{{cite web |url=https://github.com/couchbase |title=Couchbase |work=GitHub}} 119. ^Patrick 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Dwoske|work=Google+|language=en-US|access-date=January 21, 2017}} 127. ^{{cite web|url=https://github.com/golang/go/wiki/GoUsers|title=golang/go|website=GitHub}} 128. ^{{cite web |url=https://tech.plug.dj/2015/06/09/search-advances/ |title=Search & Advances |author=Steven Sacks |work=plug.dj tech blog}} 129. ^{{cite web |url=https://sendgrid.com/blog/convince-company-go-golang/ |title=How to Convince Your Company to Go With Golang |author=Tim Jenkins |work=SendGrid's Email Deliverability Blog}} 130. ^Peter Bourgon, Go at SoundCloud 131. ^{{cite web |url=http://blog.golang.org/io2014 |title=Go at Google I/O and Gopher SummerFest - The Go Blog |work=golang.org}} 132. ^{{cite web |url=https://github.com/twstrike/coyim/ |title=CoyIM |author=TWSTRIKE |work=ThoughtWorks STRIKE team}} 133. ^Rhys Hiltner, [https://blog.twitch.tv/gos-march-to-low-latency-gc-a6fa96f06eb7#.wykex6pkr Go’s march to low-latency GC], July 5, 2016. 134. ^{{cite web|url=https://eng.uber.com/go-geofence/|title=How We Built Uber Engineering’s Highest Query per Second Service Using Go|work=Uber Engineering Blog|language=en-US|access-date=March 2, 2016}} 135. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=274019 |title=Interfaces vs Inheritance (or, watch out for Go!) |last= Simionato |first=Michele |date=November 15, 2009 |publisher=artima |accessdate=November 15, 2009}} 136. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.engineyard.com/blog/ready-set-go|title=Ready, Set, Go!|last=Astels|first=Dave|date=November 9, 2009|work=|accessdate=November 9, 2009|publisher=engineyard}} 137. ^{{cite web |author=jt |title=Google's Go Wins Programming Language Of The Year Award |url=http://jaxenter.com/google-s-go-wins-programming-language-of-the-year-award-10069.html |publisher=jaxenter |accessdate=December 5, 2012}} 138. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.tiobe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html |title=TIOBE Programming Community Index for June 2015 |date=June 2015 |publisher=TIOBE Software |accessdate=July 5, 2015}} 139. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.artima.com/weblogs/viewpost.jsp?thread=333589 |title=Calling Go from Python via JSON-RPC |date=August 27, 2011 |author=Bruce Eckel |accessdate=August 29, 2011}} 140. ^{{cite conference |last=Hundt |first=Robert |title=Loop recognition in C++/Java/Go/Scala |conference=Scala Days |year=2011 |url=https://days2011.scala-lang.org/sites/days2011/files/ws3-1-Hundt.pdf}} 141. ^{{cite web |title=Google Go strikes back with C++ bake-off |first=Cade |last=Metz |date=July 1, 2011 |website=The Register |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/07/01/go_v_cpluplus_redux/}} 142. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.geek.com/news/google-didnt-google-go-before-naming-their-programming-language-977351/ |title=Google didn't google "Go" before naming their programming language' |last=Brownlee |first=John |date=November 13, 2009}} 143. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.informationweek.com/news/software/web_services/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=221601351 |title=Google 'Go' Name Brings Accusations Of Evil' |last=Claburn |first=Thomas |date=November 11, 2009 |publisher=InformationWeek |accessdate=January 18, 2010}} 144. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://code.google.com/p/go/issues/detail?id=9|title=Issue 9 - go — I have already used the name for *MY* programming language |work=Google Code |publisher=Google Inc. |accessdate=October 12, 2010}} 145. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite web | first = Will | last = Yager | url = http://yager.io/programming/go.html | title = Why Go is not Good | access-date = 4 November 2018}} 146. ^{{cite web | first = Egon | last = Elbre | url = https://docs.google.com/document/d/1vrAy9gMpMoS3uaVphB32uVXX4pi-HnNjkMEgyAHX4N4/preview | title = Summary of Go Generics discussions | access-date = 4 November 2018}} 147. ^1 2 {{cite web | first = Janos | last = Dobronszki | url = http://crufter.com/2014/12/01/everyday-hassles-in-go/ | title = Everyday Hassles in Go | access-date = 4 November 2018}} 148. ^{{cite web | last = Fitzpatrick | first = Brad | title = Go: 90% Perfect, 100% of the time | url = https://talks.golang.org/2014/gocon-tokyo.slide#50 | accessdate = January 28, 2016}} 149. ^{{ cite web | first = Rob | last = Pike | url = http://commandcenter.blogspot.de/2012/06/less-is-exponentially-more.html | title = Less is exponentially more | access-date = 4 November 2018}} External links{{Commons category|Go (programming language)}}
16 : American inventions|C programming language family|Concurrent programming languages|Cross-platform software|Free compilers and interpreters|Google software|Procedural programming languages|Programming languages created in 2009|Software using the BSD license|Statically typed programming languages|Systems programming languages|Programming languages|Go (programming language)|High-level programming languages|2009 software|Cross-platform free software |
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