“Health effects of pesticides”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

According to The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001), 9 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent chemicals were pesticides,^[5]^[6] so many have now been withdrawn from use.

Acute effects

Acute health problems may occur in workers that handle pesticides, such as abdominal pain, dizziness, headaches, nausea, vomiting, as well as skin and eye problems.^[6] In China, an estimated half million people are poisoned by pesticides each year, 500 of whom die.^[7] Pyrethrins, insecticides commonly used in common bug killers, can cause a potentially deadly condition if breathed in.^[8]

Long-term effects

Cancer

Many studies have examined the effects of pesticide exposure on the risk of cancer. Associations have been found with: leukemia, lymphoma, brain, kidney, breast, prostate, pancreas, liver, lung, and skin cancers.^[9] This increased risk occurs with both residential and occupational exposures.^[9] Increased rates of cancer have been found among farm workers who apply these chemicals.^[10] A mother's occupational exposure to pesticides during pregnancy is associated with an increases in her child's risk of leukemia, Wilms' tumor, and brain cancer.^[9]^[11] Exposure to insecticides within the home and herbicides outside is associated with blood cancers in children.^[12]

Neurological

Evidence links pesticide exposure to worsened neurological outcomes.^[3]{{vague|date=July 2018}}

The United States Environmental Protection Agency finished a 10-year review of the organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the agency and from outside researchers.^[13]^[14] Comparable studies have not been done with newer pesticides that are replacing organophosphates.^[15]

Reproductive effects

Strong evidence links pesticide exposure to birth defects, fetal death and altered fetal growth.^[3] Agent Orange, a 50:50 mixture of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D, has been associated with bad health and genetic effects in Malaya and Vietnam.^[16]^[17] It was also found that offspring that were at some point exposed to pesticides had a low birth weight and had developmental defects.^[18]

Fertility

A number of pesticides including dibromochlorophane and 2,4-D has been associated with impaired fertility in males.^[19]

Pesticide exposure resulted in reduced fertility in males, genetic alterations in sperm, a reduced number of sperm, damage to germinal epithelium and altered hormone function.^[20]

Other

Additionally, studies have indicated that pesticide exposure is associated with long-term respiratory problems.^[21] Summaries of peer-reviewed research have examined the link between pesticide exposure and neurologic outcomes and cancer, perhaps the two most significant things resulting in organophosphate-exposed workers.^[22]^[23]

According to researchers from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), licensed pesticide applicators who used chlorinated pesticides on more than 100 days in their lifetime were at greater risk of diabetes. One study found that associations between specific pesticides and incident diabetes ranged from a 20 percent to a 200 percent increase in risk. New cases of diabetes were reported by 3.4 percent of those in the lowest pesticide use category compared with 4.6 percent of those in the highest category. Risks were greater when users of specific pesticides were compared with applicators who never applied that chemical.^[24]^[25]

Route of exposure

People can be exposed to pesticides by a number of different routes including: occupation, in the home, at school and in their food.

There are concerns that pesticides used to control pests on food crops are dangerous to people who consume those foods. These concerns are one reason for the organic food movement. Many food crops, including fruits and vegetables, contain pesticide residues after being washed or peeled. Chemicals that are no longer used but that are resistant to breakdown for long periods may remain in soil and water and thus in food.^[26]

The United Nations Codex Alimentarius Commission has recommended international standards for maximum residue limits (MRLs), for individual pesticides in food.^[27]

In the United States, levels of residues that remain on foods are limited to tolerance levels that are established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and are considered safe.^[28] The EPA sets the tolerances based on the toxicity of the pesticide and its breakdown products, the amount and frequency of pesticide application, and how much of the pesticide (i.e., the residue) remains in or on food by the time it is marketed and prepared.^[29] Tolerance levels are obtained using scientific risk assessments that pesticide manufacturers are required to produce by conducting toxicological studies, exposure modeling and residue studies before a particular pesticide can be registered, however, the effects are tested for single pesticides, and there is little information on possible synergistic effects of exposure to multiple pesticide traces in the air, food and water.^[30]

Strawberries and tomatoes are the two crops with the most intensive use of soil fumigants. They are particularly vulnerable to several type of diseases, insects, mites, and parasitic worms. In 2003, in California alone, 3.7 million pounds (1,700 metric tons) of metham sodium were used on tomatoes. In recent years other farmers have demonstrated that it is possible to produce strawberries and tomatoes without the use of harmful chemicals and in a cost-effective way.^[31]

Exposure routes other than consuming food that contains residues, in particular pesticide drift, are potentially significant to the general public.^[32]

Some pesticides can remain in the environment for prolonged periods of time. For example, most people in the United States still have detectable levels of DDT in their bodies even though it was banned in the US in 1972.^[9]

Prevention

Pesticides exposure cannot be studied in placebo controlled trials as this would be unethical.^[3] A definitive cause effect relationship therefore cannot be established.^[3] Consistent evidence can and has been gathered through other study designs.^[3] The precautionary principle is thus frequently used in environmental law such that absolute proof is not required before efforts to decrease exposure to potential toxins are enacted.^[33]

The American Medical Association recommend limiting exposure to pesticides.^[44] They came to this conclusion due to the fact that surveillance systems currently in place are inadequate to determine problems related to exposure.^[34] The utility of applicator certification and public notification programs are also of unknown value in their ability to prevent adverse outcomes.^[34]

Epidemiology

The World Health Organization and the UN Environment Programme estimate that each year, 3 million workers in agriculture in the developing world experience severe poisoning from pesticides, about 18,000 of whom die.^[35] According to one study, as many as 25 million workers in developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly.^[36] Detectable levels of 50 different pesticides were found in the blood of a representative sample of the U.S. population.^[9]

Research conflicts of interest

Concerns regarding conflict of interests regarding the research base have been raised. After his death Richard Doll of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund in England was found to have undisclosed ties to industry funding.^[37]^[38]

Other animals

A number of pesticides including the neonicotinoids clothianidin, dinotefuran, imidacloprid are toxic to bees.^[39] Exposure to pesticides may be one of the contributory factors to colony collapse disorder.^[40]

A study in North Carolina indicated that more than 30 percent of the quail tested were made sick by one aerial insecticide application. Once sick, wild birds may neglect their young, abandon their nests, and become more susceptible to predators or disease.^[41]

See also

References

1. ^U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (August 30, 2007), Pesticides: Health and Safety. National Assessment of the Worker Protection Workshop #3.
2. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Bassil KL, Vakil C, Sanborn M, Cole DC, Kaur JS, Kerr KJ |title=Cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review |journal=Can Fam Physician |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=1704–11 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17934034 |pmc=2231435 |doi= |url=}}
3. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶{{cite journal |vauthors=Sanborn M, Kerr KJ, Sanin LH, Cole DC, Bassil KL, Vakil C |title=Non-cancer health effects of pesticides: systematic review and implications for family doctors |journal=Can Fam Physician |volume=53 |issue=10 |pages=1712–20 |date=October 2007 |pmid=17934035 |pmc=2231436 |doi= |url=}}
4. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Jurewicz J, Hanke W |title=Prenatal and childhood exposure to pesticides and neurobehavioral development: review of epidemiological studies |journal=Int J Occup Med Environ Health |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=121–32 |year=2008 |pmid=18614459 |doi=10.2478/v10001-008-0014-z |url=}}
5. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.pops.int/documents/pops/default.htm |title=What are POPs? |publisher=Pops.int |accessdate=2014-02-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416233317/http://www.pops.int/documents/pops/default.htm |archivedate=2014-04-16 |df= }}
6. ^Ecobichon DJ. 1996. Toxic effects of pesticides. In: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons (Klaassen CD, Doull J, eds). 5th ed. New York:MacMillan, 643–689.
7. ^Lawrence, Dune (February 13, 2007), Chinese develop taste for organic food: Higher cost no barrier to safer eating. Bloomberg News, International Herald Tribune Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
8. ^Medline Plus (May 17, 2006), [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002832.htm Medical Encyclopedia: Insecticide]. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.
9. ^¹²³⁴⁵{{cite journal |vauthors=Gilden RC, Huffling K, Sattler B |title=Pesticides and health risks |journal=J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=103–10 |year=2010 |pmid=20409108 |doi=10.1111/j.1552-6909.2009.01092.x |type=Review}}
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11. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Van Maele-Fabry G, Lantin AC, Hoet P, Lison D |title=Childhood leukaemia and parental occupational exposure to pesticides: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Cancer Causes Control |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=787–809 |date=June 2010 |pmid=20467891 |doi=10.1007/s10552-010-9516-7 |url=}}
12. ^{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=M|last2=Chang|first2=CH|last3=Tao|first3=L|last4=Lu|first4=C|title=Residential Exposure to Pesticide During Childhood and Childhood Cancers: A Meta-Analysis.|journal=Pediatrics|date=October 2015|volume=136|issue=4|pages=719–29|pmid=26371195|doi=10.1542/peds.2015-0006}}
13. ^{{cite journal | author=Phillips ML | title=Registering skepticism: does the EPA's pesticide review protect children? | journal=Environmental Health Perspectives | volume=114 | issue=10 | year=2006 | pages=A592–A595 | id= | pmid=17035127 | pmc=1626397 | doi=10.1289/ehp.114-a592}}
14. ^Pulaski A (May 26, 2006), EPA workers blast agency's rulings on deadly pesticides: Letter sent to EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson by unions representing 9,000 EPA scientists. The Oregonian, Mindfully.org Retrieved on 2007-10-10.
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17. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Ngo AD, Taylor R, Roberts CL |title=Paternal exposure to Agent Orange and spina bifida: a meta-analysis |journal=Eur. J. Epidemiol. |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=37–44 |year=2010 |pmid=19894129 |doi=10.1007/s10654-009-9401-4 |url=}}
18. ^{{cite journal|vauthors = Bretveld RW, Thomas CG, Scheepers PJ, Zielhuis GA, Roeleveld N|title=Pesticide exposure: the hormonal function of the female reproductive system disrupted?|journal=Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology|volume=4|issue=1|year=2006|pages=30|issn=1477-7827|doi=10.1186/1477-7827-4-30|pmid=16737536|pmc=1524969}}
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20. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.arhp.org/publications-and-resources/clinical-proceedings/RHE/Pesticides|title=Environmental Impacts on Reproductive Health: Pesticides|publisher=}}
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22. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Alavanja MC, Hoppin JA, Kamel F |title=Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity |journal=Annu Rev Public Health |volume=25 |issue= |pages=155–97 |year=2004 |pmid=15015917 |doi=10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123020 |url=}}
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24. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Montgomery MP, Kamel F, Saldana TM, Alavanja MC, Sandler DP |title=Incident diabetes and pesticide exposure among licensed pesticide applicators: Agricultural Health Study, 1993–2003 |journal=Am J Epidemiol |volume=167 |issue=10 |pages=235–46 |date=May 2008 |pmid=18343878 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwn028 |pmc=2832308}}
25. ^Newswise: Long-term Pesticide Exposure May Increase Risk of Diabetes Retrieved on June 4, 2008.
26. ^Cornell University, College of Veterinary Medicine (March 1999), Consumer concerns about pesticides in food. Fact Sheet #24. Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
27. ^Codex Alimentarius Commission Code of Ethics for International Trade in Food. CAC/RCP 20-1979 (Rev. 1-1985). Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
28. ^U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (March 27, 2007), Pesticides and food: What the pesticide residue limits are on food. epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.
29. ^U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (July 24, 2007), Setting tolerances for pesticide residues in foods. epa.gov. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.
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32. ^U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (December 1999), Spray drift of pesticides. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.
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40. ^{{cite journal |author=Myrna E. Watanabe‌ |title=Colony Collapse Disorder: Many Suspects, No Smoking Gun |journal=BioScience |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=384–388 |date=May 2008 |pmid= |doi=10.1641/B580503 }}
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://ipm.ncsu.edu/wildlife/corn_wildlife.html|title=Wildlife & Pesticides - Corn|publisher=}}