“John the Baptist”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

John the Baptist is mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus^[17] and revered as a major religious figure^[18] in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith,^[19] and Mandaeism. He is called a prophet by all of these faiths, and is honored as a saint in many Christian traditions. According to the New Testament, John anticipated a messianic figure greater than himself^[20] and Christians commonly refer to John as the precursor or forerunner of Jesus,^[21] since John announces Jesus' coming. John is also identified as the spiritual successor of the prophet Elijah.^[22] According to the New Testament John the Baptist was Jesus Christ's cousin.^[23]

Some scholars maintain that John was influenced by the semi-ascetic Essenes, who expected an apocalypse and practiced rituals corresponding strongly with baptism,^[24] although no direct evidence substantiates this.^[25]

John used baptism as the central symbol or sacrament^[26] of his messianic movement. Most scholars agree that John baptized Jesus^[27]^[28] and some scholars believe Jesus was a follower or disciple of John.^[29]^[30]^[31] The New Testament texts in which John is mentioned portray him as rejecting this idea, although several New Testament accounts report that some of Jesus' early followers had previously been followers of John.^[32]

John was sentenced to death and subsequently beheaded by Herod Antipas sometime between 28 and 36 AD after John rebuked him for divorcing his wife, Phasaelis, and unlawfully taking Herodias, the wife of his brother Herod Philip I.

Gospel narratives

John the Baptist is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of the Nazarenes. The Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew and Luke) describe John baptising Jesus; in the Gospel of John this is implied in {{bibleverse||John|1:32–1:34|NKJV}}.

In Mark

The Gospel of Mark introduces John as a fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah (in fact, a conflation of texts from Isaiah, Malachi and Exodus)^[33] about a messenger being sent ahead, and a voice crying out in the wilderness. John is described as wearing clothes of camel's hair, living on locusts and wild honey. John proclaims baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sin, and says another will come after him who will not baptize with water, but with the Holy Spirit.

Jesus comes to John, and is baptized by him in the river Jordan. The account describes how; as he emerges from the water, the heavens open and the Holy Spirit descends on him 'like a dove'. A voice from heaven then says, "You are my Son, the Beloved; with you I am well pleased." ({{bibleref2|Mark|1:11|NRSV}})

Later in the gospel there is an account of John's death. It is introduced by an incident where the Tetrarch Herod Antipas, hearing stories about Jesus, imagines that this is John the Baptist raised from the dead. It then explains that John had rebuked Herod for marrying Herodias, the ex-wife of his brother (named here as Philip). Herodias demands his execution, but Herod, who 'liked to listen' to John, is reluctant to do so because he fears him, knowing he is a 'righteous and holy man'.

The account then describes how Herod's daughter Herodias (NRSV; other translations refer to the girl as the daughter of Herodias) dances before Herod, who is pleased and offers her anything she asks for in return. When the girl asks her mother what she should request, she is told to demand the head of John the Baptist. Reluctantly, Herod orders the beheading of John, and his head is delivered to her, at her request, on a plate. John's disciples take the body away and bury it in a tomb.({{bibleref2|Mark|6:17–29|NRSV}})

There are a number of difficulties with this passage. The Gospel refers to Antipas as 'King'^[34] and the ex-husband of Herodias is named as Philip, but he is known to have been called Herod.^[35] Although the wording clearly implies the girl was the daughter of Herodias, many texts describe her as "Herod's daughter, Herodias". Since these texts are early and significant and the reading is 'difficult', many scholars see this as the original version, corrected in later versions and in Matthew and Luke.^[35]^[36]^[37] Josephus says that Herodias had a daughter by the name of Salome.

Scholars have speculated about the origins of the story. Since it shows signs of having been composed in Aramaic, which Mark apparently did not speak, he is likely to have got it from a Palestinian source.^[38] There are a variety of opinions about how much actual historical material it contains, especially given the alleged factual errors.^[39] Many scholars have seen the story of John arrested, executed, and buried in a tomb as a conscious foreshadowing of the fate of Jesus.^[40]

John appeared, baptizing in the wilderness and proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. And all the country of Judea and all Jerusalem were going out to him and were being baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins. Now John was clothed with camel's hair and wore a leather belt around his waist and ate locusts and wild honey. And he preached, saying, "After me comes he who is mightier than I, the strap of whose sandals I am not worthy to stoop down and untie. I have baptized you with water, but he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit."

In those days Jesus came from Nazareth of Galilee and was baptized by John in the Jordan. And when he came up out of the water, immediately he saw the heavens being torn open and the Spirit descending on him like a dove. And a voice came from heaven, "You are my beloved Son, with you I am well pleased."

King Herod heard of it, for Jesus' name had become known. Some said, "John the Baptist has been raised from the dead. That is why these miraculous powers are at work in him." But others said, "He is Elijah." And others said, "He is a prophet, like one of the prophets of old." But when Herod heard of it, he said, "John, whom I beheaded, has been raised." For it was Herod who had sent and seized John and bound him in prison for the sake of Herodias, his brother Philip's wife, because he had married her. For John had been saying to Herod, "It is not lawful for you to have your brother's wife." And Herodias had a grudge against him and wanted to put him to death. But she could not, for Herod feared John, knowing that he was a righteous and holy man, and he kept him safe. When he heard him, he was greatly perplexed, and yet he heard him gladly.

But an opportunity came when Herod on his birthday gave a banquet for his nobles and military commanders and the leading men of Galilee. For when Herodias's daughter came in and danced, she pleased Herod and his guests. And the king said to the girl, "Ask me for whatever you wish, and I will give it to you." And he vowed to her, "Whatever you ask me, I will give you, up to half of my kingdom." And she went out and said to her mother, "For what should I ask?" And she said, "The head of John the Baptist." And she came in immediately with haste to the king and asked, saying, "I want you to give me at once the head of John the Baptist on a platter." And the king was exceedingly sorry, but because of his oaths and his guests he did not want to break his word to her. And immediately the king sent an executioner with orders to bring John's head. He went and beheaded him in the prison and brought his head on a platter and gave it to the girl, and the girl gave it to her mother. When his disciples heard of it, they came and took his body and laid it in a tomb.

In Matthew

The Gospel of Matthew account begins with the same modified quotation from Isaiah,^[41] moving the Malachi and Exodus material to later in the text, where it is quoted by Jesus.^[42] The description of John is taken directly from Mark ("clothing of camel's hair with a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey"), along with the proclamation that one was coming who would baptise with the Holy Spirit "and fire".({{bibleref2|Matthew|3:1–12|NRSV}})

Unlike Mark, Matthew describes John as critical of Pharisees and Sadducees and as preaching "the kingdom of heaven is at hand" and a "coming judgment".

Matthew shortens the account of the beheading of John, and adds two elements: that Herod Antipas wants John dead, and that the death is reported to Jesus by his disciples.^[43] Matthew's approach is to shift the focus away from Herod and onto John as a prototype of Jesus. Where Mark has Herod killing John reluctantly and at Herodias' insistence, Matthew describes him as wanting John dead.^[44]

In those days John the Baptist came preaching in the wilderness of Judea, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." For this is he who was spoken of by the prophet Isaiah when he said,

Now John wore a garment of camel's hair and a leather belt around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey. Then Jerusalem and all Judea and all the region about the Jordan were going out to him, and they were baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing their sins.

But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to his baptism, he said to them, "You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruit in keeping with repentance. And do not presume to say to yourselves, 'We have Abraham as our father,' for I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up children for Abraham. Even now the axe is laid to the root of the trees. Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire.

"I baptize you with water for repentance, but he who is coming after me is mightier than I, whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire. His winnowing fork is in his hand, and he will clear his threshing floor and gather his wheat into the barn, but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire."

Then Jesus came from Galilee to the Jordan to John, to be baptized by him. John would have prevented him, saying, "I need to be baptized by you, and do you come to me?" But Jesus answered him, "Let it be so now, for thus it is fitting for us to fulfill all righteousness." Then he consented. And when Jesus was baptized, immediately he went up from the water, and behold, the heavens were opened to him, and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming to rest on him; and behold, a voice from heaven said, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased."

Now when John heard in prison about the deeds of the Christ, he sent word by his disciples and said to him, "Are you the one who is to come, or shall we look for another?" And Jesus answered them, "Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight and the lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and the poor have good news preached to them. And blessed is the one who is not offended by me."

As they went away, Jesus began to speak to the crowds concerning John: "What did you go out into the wilderness to see? A reed shaken by the wind? What then did you go out to see? A man dressed in soft clothing? Behold, those who wear soft clothing are in kings' houses. What then did you go out to see? A prophet? Yes, I tell you, and more than a prophet. This is he of whom it is written,

Truly, I say to you, among those born of women there has arisen no one greater than John the Baptist. Yet the one who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he. From the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven has suffered violence, and the violent take it by force. For all the Prophets and the Law prophesied until John, and if you are willing to accept it, he is Elijah who is to come. He who has ears to hear, let him hear.

"But to what shall I compare this generation? It is like children sitting in the marketplaces and calling to their playmates,

For John came neither eating nor drinking, and they say, 'He has a demon.' The Son of Man came eating and drinking, and they say, 'Look at him! A glutton and a drunkard, a friend of tax collectors and sinners!' Yet wisdom is justified by her deeds."

At that time Herod the tetrarch heard about the fame of Jesus, and he said to his servants, "This is John the Baptist. He has been raised from the dead; that is why these miraculous powers are at work in him." For Herod had seized John and bound him and put him in prison for the sake of Herodias, his brother Philip's wife, because John had been saying to him, "It is not lawful for you to have her." And though he wanted to put him to death, he feared the people, because they held him to be a prophet. But when Herod's birthday came, the daughter of Herodias danced before the company and pleased Herod, so that he promised with an oath to give her whatever she might ask. Prompted by her mother, she said, "Give me the head of John the Baptist here on a platter." And the king was sorry, but because of his oaths and his guests he commanded it to be given. He sent and had John beheaded in the prison, and his head was brought on a platter and given to the girl, and she brought it to her mother. And his disciples came and took the body and buried it, and they went and told Jesus.

In Luke and Acts

The Gospel of Luke adds an account of John's infancy, introducing him as the miraculous son of Zechariah, an old man, and his wife Elizabeth, who was past menopause and therefore unable to have children.^[45]^[46] According to this account, the birth of John was foretold by the angel Gabriel to Zechariah, while he was performing his functions as a priest in the temple of Jerusalem. Since he is described as a priest of the course of Abijah and Elizabeth as one of the daughters of Aaron,^[47] this would make John a descendant of Aaron on both his father's and mother's side.^[48] On the basis of this account, the Catholic as well as the Anglican and Lutheran liturgical calendars placed the feast of the Nativity of John the Baptist on June 24, six months before Christmas.^[49]

Elizabeth is described as a "relative" of Mary, the mother of Jesus in {{Bibleref2|Luke|1:36|niv}}. There is no mention of a family relationship between John and Jesus in the other Gospels, and Raymond E. Brown has described it as "of dubious historicity".^[50] Géza Vermes has called it "artificial and undoubtedly Luke's creation".^[51] The many similarities between the Gospel of Luke story of the birth of John and the Old Testament account of the birth of Samuel suggest that Luke's account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus are modeled on that of Samuel.^[52]

Unique to the Gospel of Luke, John the Baptist explicitly teaches charity, baptizes tax-collectors, and advises soldiers.

The text briefly mentions that John is imprisoned and later beheaded by Herod, but the Gospel of Luke lacks the story of a step-daughter dancing for Herod and requesting John's head.

The Book of Acts portrays some disciples of John becoming followers of Jesus {{bibleref2|Acts|18:24–19:6|NRSV}} a development not reported by the gospels except for the early case of Andrew, Simon Peter's brother {{bibleref2|John|1:35–42|NRSV}}

In the reign of Herod, king of Judea, there was a priest named Zechariah, who belonged to the division called after Abijah. His wife, whose name was Elizabeth, was also a descendant of Aaron. They were both righteous people, who lived blameless lives, guiding their steps by all the commandments and ordinances of the Lord. But they had no child, Elizabeth being barren; and both of them were advanced in years.

One day, when Zechariah was officiating as priest before God, during the turn of his division, it fell to him by lot, in accordance with the practice among the priests, to go into the Temple of the Lord and burn incense; and, as it was the Hour of Incense, the people were all praying outside. And an angel of the Lord appeared to him, standing on the right of the Altar of Incense. Zechariah was startled at the sight and was awe-struck. But the angel said to him: "Do not be afraid, Zechariah; your prayer has been heard, and your wife Elizabeth will bear you a son, whom you will call by the name John. He will be to you a joy and a delight; and many will rejoice over his birth. For he will be great in the sight of the Lord; he will not drink any wine or strong drink, and he will be filled with the Holy Spirit from the very hour of his birth, and will reconcile many of the Israelites to the Lord their God. He will go before him in the spirit and with the power of Elijah, 'to reconcile fathers to their children' and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous, and so make ready for the Lord a people prepared for him."

"How can I be sure of this?" Zechariah asked the angel. "For I am an old man and my wife is advanced in years."

"I am Gabriel," the angel answered, "who stand in the presence of God, and I have been sent to speak to you and to bring you this good news. And now you will be silent and unable to speak until the day when this takes place, because you did not believe what I said, though my words will be fulfilled in due course."

Meanwhile, the people were watching for Zechariah, wondering at his remaining so long in the Temple. When he came out, he was unable to speak to them, and they perceived that he had seen a vision there. But Zechariah kept making signs to them, and remained dumb. And, as soon as his term of service was finished, he returned home. After this his wife, Elizabeth, became pregnant and lived in seclusion for five months. "The Lord has done this for me," she said, "he has shown me kindness and taken away the public disgrace of childlessness under which I have been living."

Six months later the angel Gabriel was sent from God to a town in Galilee called Nazareth, to a maiden there who was engaged to a man named Joseph, a descendant of David. Her name was Mary. Gabriel came into her presence and greeted her, saying: "You have been shown great favor – the Lord is with you."

Mary was much disturbed at his words, and was wondering to herself what such a greeting could mean, when the angel spoke again: "Do not be afraid, Mary, for you have found favor with God. And now, you will conceive and give birth to a son, and you will give him the name Jesus. The child will be great and will be called 'Son of the Most High,' and the Lord God will give him the throne of his ancestor David, and he will reign over the descendants of Jacob for ever; And to his kingdom there will be no end."

"The Holy Spirit will descend on you," answered the angel, "and the Power of the Most High will overshadow you; and therefore the child will be called 'holy,' and 'Son of God.' And Elizabeth, your cousin, is herself also expecting a son in her old age; and it is now the sixth month with her, though she is called barren; for no promise from God will fail to be fulfilled."

"I am the servant of the Lord," exclaimed Mary; "let it be with me as you have said." Then the angel left her.

Soon after this Mary set out, and made her way quickly into the hill-country, to a town in Judah; and there she went into Zechariah's house and greeted Elizabeth. When Elizabeth heard Mary's greeting, the child moved within her, and Elizabeth herself was filled with the Holy Spirit, and cried aloud: "Blessed are you among women, and blessed is your unborn child! But how have I this honor, that the mother of my Lord should come to me? For, as soon as your greeting reached my ears, the child moved within me with delight! Happy indeed is she who believed that the promise which she received from the Lord would be fulfilled."

Mary stayed with Elizabeth about three months, and then returned to her home. When Elizabeth's time came, she gave birth to a son; and her neighbors and relations, hearing of the great goodness of the Lord to her, came to share her joy. A week later they met to circumcise the child, and were about to call him 'Zechariah' after his father, when his mother spoke up: "No, he is to be called John."

"You have no relation of that name!" they exclaimed; and they made signs to the child's father, to find out what he wished the child to be called. Asking for a writing-tablet, he wrote the words – 'His name is John.' Everyone was surprised; and immediately Zechariah recovered his voice and the use of his tongue, and began to bless God. All their neighbors were awe-struck at this; and throughout the hill-country of Judea the whole story was much talked about; and all who heard it kept it in mind, asking one another – "What can this child be destined to become?" For the Power of the Lord was with him.

Then his father Zechariah was filled with the Holy Spirit, and, speaking under inspiration, said:

The child grew and became strong in spirit; and he lived in the Wilds until the time came for his appearance before Israel.

In the fifteenth year of the reign of the Emperor Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was Governor of Judea, Herod Ruler of Galilee, his brother Philip Ruler of the territory comprising Ituraea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias Ruler of Abilene, and when Annas and Caiaphas were high priests, a command from God came to John, the son of Zechariah, while he was in the wilderness. And John went through the whole district of the Jordan, proclaiming baptism on repentance, for the forgiveness of sins. This was in fulfillment of what is said in the writings of the prophet Isaiah –

And John said to the crowds that went to be baptized by him: "You children of snakes! Who has prompted you to seek refuge from the coming judgment? Let your lives, then, prove your repentance; and do not begin to say among yourselves 'Abraham is our ancestor,' for I tell you that out of these stones God is able to raise descendants for Abraham! Already, indeed, the axe is lying at the root of the trees. Therefore, every tree that fails to bear good fruit will be cut down and thrown into the fire."

"What are we to do then?" the people asked. "Let anyone who has two coats," answered John, "share with the person who has none; and anyone who has food do the same."

Even tax-gatherers came to be baptized, and said to John: "Teacher, what are we to do?"

"Do not collect more than you have authority to demand," John answered. And when some soldiers on active service asked "And we – what are we to do?" he said: "Never use violence, or exact anything by false accusation; and be content with your pay."

Then, while the people were in suspense, and were all debating with themselves whether John could be the Christ, John, addressing them all, said: "I, indeed, baptize you with water; but there is coming one more powerful than I, and I am not fit even to unfasten his sandals. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and with fire. His winnowing-fan is in his hand so that he may clear his threshing-floor, and store the grain in his barn, but the chaff he will burn with a fire that cannot be put out."

And so with many different appeals John told his good news to the people. But Prince Herod, being rebuked by John respecting Herodias, the wife of Herod's brother, and for all the evil things that he had done, crowned them all by shutting John up in prison. Now after the baptism of all the people, and when Jesus had been baptized and was still praying, the heavens opened, and the Holy Spirit came down on him in the form of a dove, and from the heavens came a voice – "You are my dearly loved son; you bring me great joy."

"John's disciples," they said to Jesus, "Often fast and say prayers, and so do the disciples of the Pharisees, while yours are eating and drinking!"

All these events were reported to John by his disciples. So he summoned two of them, and sent them to the Master to ask – "Are you 'the coming one,' or are we to look for some one else?"

When these men found Jesus, they said: "John the Baptist has sent us to you to ask – 'Are you 'the coming one,' or are we to look for somebody else?'" At that very time Jesus had cured many people of diseases, afflictions, and wicked spirits, and had given many blind people their sight. So his answer to the question was: "Go and report to John what you have witnessed and heard – the blind recover their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are made clean, and the deaf hear, the dead are raised to life, the good news is told to the poor. And blessed is the person who finds no hindrance in me."

When John's messengers had left, Jesus, speaking to the crowds, began to say with reference to John: "What did you go out into the wilderness to look at? A reed waving in the wind? If not, what did you go out to see? A man dressed in rich clothing? Why, those who are accustomed to fine clothes and luxury live in royal palaces. What then did you go to see? A prophet? Yes, I tell you, and far more than a prophet. This is the man of whom scripture says –

There is, I tell you, no one born of a woman who is greater than John; and yet the least in the kingdom of God is greater than he."

(All the people, when they heard this, and even the tax-gatherers, having accepted John's baptism, acknowledged the justice of God. But the Pharisees and the students of the law, having rejected John's baptism, frustrated God's purpose in regard to them.)

In the Gospel of John

The fourth gospel describes John the Baptist as "a man sent from God" who "was not the light", but "came as a witness, to bear witness to the light, so that through him everyone might believe".^[53] John clearly denies being the Christ or Elijah or 'the prophet', instead describing himself as the "voice of one crying in the wilderness".^[54]

Upon literary analysis, it is clear that John is the "testifier and confessor par excellence", particularly when compared to figures like Nicodemus.^[55]

Jesus's baptism is implied but not depicted. Unlike the other gospels, it is John himself who testifies to seeing "the Spirit come down from heaven like a dove and rest on him". John explicitly announces that Jesus is the one "who baptizes with the Holy Spirit" and John even professes a "belief that he is the Son of God" and "the Lamb of God".

The Gospel of John reports that Jesus' disciples were baptizing and that a debate broke out between some of the disciples of John and another Jew about purification.^[56] In this debate John argued that Jesus "must become greater," while he (John) "must become less"^[57] (Latin Vulgate: {{bibleref2|Ioannes|3:30|VULGATE|illum oportet crescere me autem minui}}).

The Gospel of John then points out that Jesus' disciples were baptizing more people than John.^[58] Later, the Gospel relates that Jesus regarded John as "a burning and shining lamp, and you were willing to rejoice for a while in his light".^[59]

There appeared a man sent from God, whose name was John; he came as a witness – to bear witness to the light so that through him everyone might believe. He was not the light, but he came to bear witness to the light.

When the religious authorities in Jerusalem sent some Priests and Levites to ask John – "Who are you?", he told them clearly and simply: "I am not the Christ."

"Who then are you?" they continued; "tell us so that we have an answer to give to those who have sent us. What do you say about yourself?"

"I," he answered, "am – 'The voice of one crying aloud in the wilderness – "make a straight road for the Lord"', as the prophet Isaiah said."

These men had been sent from the Pharisees; and their next question was: "Why then do you baptize, if you are not the Christ or Elijah or 'the prophet'?" John's answer was – "I baptize with water, but among you stands one whom you do not know; he is coming after me, yet I am not worthy even to unfasten his sandal." This happened at Bethany, across the Jordan, where John was baptizing.

The next day John saw Jesus coming towards him, and exclaimed: "Here is the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world! I was taking about him when I said 'After me there is coming a man who ranks ahead of me, because before I was born he already was.' I did not know who he was, but I have come baptizing with water to make him known to Israel."

John also said: "I saw the Spirit come down from heaven like a dove and rest on him. I myself did not know him, but he who sent me to baptize with water, he said to me 'He on whom you see the Spirit descending, and remaining on him – he it is who baptizes with the Holy Spirit.' This I have seen myself, and I have declared my belief that he is the Son of God." The next day, when John was standing with two of his disciples, he looked at Jesus as he passed and exclaimed: "There is the Lamb of God!" The two disciples heard him say this, and followed Jesus.

John, also, was baptizing at Aenon near Salim, because there were many streams there; and people were constantly coming and being baptized. (For John had not yet been imprisoned). Now a discussion arose between some of John's disciples and a fellow Jew on the subject of 'purification;' and the disciples came to John and said: "Rabbi, the man who was with you on the other side of the Jordan, and to whom you have yourself borne testimony – he, also, is baptizing, and everybody is going to him." John's answer was – "A person can gain nothing but what is given them from heaven. You are yourselves witnesses that I said 'I am not the Christ,' but 'I have been sent before him as a messenger.' It is the groom who has the bride; but the groom's friend, who stands by and listens to him, is filled with joy when he hears the groom's voice. This joy I have felt to the full. He must become greater, and I less."

He who comes from above is above all others; but a child of earth is earthly, and his teaching is earthly, too. He who comes from heaven is above all others. He states what he has seen and what he heard, and yet no one accepts his statement. They who did accept his statement confirm the fact that God is true. For he whom God sent as his messenger gives us God's own teaching, for God does not limit the gift of the Spirit. The Father loves his Son, and has put everything in his hands. The person who believes in the Son has eternal life, while a person who rejects the Son will not even see that life, but remains under 'God's displeasure.'

Comparative analysis

Simon J. Joseph has argued that the Gospel demotes the historical John by painting him only as a prophetic forerunner to Jesus whereas his ministry actually complemented Jesus'.^[60]

Although Mark's Gospel implies that the arrival of John the Baptist is the fulfilment of a prophecy from the Book of Isaiah, the words quoted ("I will send my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way – a voice of one calling in the wilderness, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him.'") are actually a composite of texts from Isaiah, Malachi and the Book of Exodus. (Matthew and Luke drop the first part of the reference.)^[33]

The gospels differ on the details of the Baptism. In Mark and Luke, Jesus himself sees the heavens open and hears a voice address him personally, saying, "You are my dearly loved son; you bring me great joy". They do not clarify whether others saw and heard these things. Although other incidents where the "voice came out of heaven" are recorded in which, for the sake of the crowds, it was heard audibly, John did say in his witness that he did see the spirit coming down "out of heaven". John 12:28–30, John 1:32

In Matthew, the voice from heaven does not address Jesus personally, saying instead "This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased."

In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist himself sees the spirit descend as a dove, testifying about the experience as evidence of Jesus's status.

John's knowledge of Jesus varies across gospels. In the Gospel of Mark, John preaches of a coming leader, but shows no signs of recognizing that Jesus is this leader. In Matthew, however, John immediately recognizes Jesus and John questions his own worthiness to baptize Jesus. In both Matthew and Luke, John later dispatches disciples to question Jesus about his status, asking "Are you he who is to come, or shall we look for another?"

In Luke, John is a familial relative of Jesus whose birth was foretold by Gabriel.

In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist himself sees the spirit descend like a dove and he explicitly preaches that Jesus is the Son of God.

The Gospels vary in their depiction of John's relationship to Elijah. Matthew and Mark describe John's attire in a way reminiscent of the description of Elijah in 8, who also wore a garment of hair and a leather belt. In Matthew, Jesus explicitly teaches that John is "Elijah who was to come" (Matt. 11:14 – see also Matt. 17:11–13); many Christian theologians have taken this to mean that John was Elijah's successor. In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist explicitly denies being Elijah.^[61] In the annunciation narrative in Luke, an angel appears to Zechariah, John's father, and tells him that John "will turn many of the sons of Israel to the Lord their God," and that he will go forth "in the spirit and power of Elijah ({{Bibleverse||Luke|1:16–17|NAB}})."

In Josephus's Antiquities of the Jews

An account of John the Baptist is found in all extant manuscripts of the Antiquities of the Jews (book 18, chapter 5, 2) by Flavius Josephus (37–100):^[62]

According to this passage, the execution of John was blamed for the defeat Herod suffered. Some have claimed that this passage indicates that John died near the time of the destruction of Herod's army in 36 AD. However, in a different passage, Josephus states that the end of Herod's marriage with Aretas' daughter (after which John was killed) was only the beginning of hostilities between Herod and Aretas, which later escalated into the battle.^[64]

Divergences between the passage's presentation and the biblical accounts of John include baptism for those whose souls have already been "purified beforehand by righteousness" is for purification of the body, not general repentance of sin (Mark 1:4).^[65] Biblical scholar John Dominic Crossan differentiates between Josephus's account of John and Jesus, saying, "John had a monopoly, but Jesus had a franchise." To get baptized, Crossan writes, you went only to John; to stop the movement one only needed to stop John (therefore his movement ended with his death). Jesus invited all to come and see how he and his companions had already accepted the government of God, entered it and were living it. Such a communal praxis was not just for himself, but could survive without him, unlike John's movement.^[66]

Relics

The burial-place of John the Baptist was traditionally said to be at the Nabi Yahya Mosque (Saint John the Baptiste Mosque) in Sebastia in current Palestinian territories, and mention is made of his relics being honored there around the middle of the 4th century. The historians Rufinus and Theodoretus record that the shrine was desecrated under Julian the Apostate around 362, the bones being partly burned. A portion of the rescued relics were carried to Jerusalem, then to Alexandria, where on 27 May 395, they were laid in the basilica newly dedicated to the Forerunner on the former site of the temple of Serapis. The tomb at Sebaste continued, nevertheless, to be visited by pious pilgrims, and Saint Jerome bears witness to miracles being worked there.

What became of the head of John the Baptist is difficult to determine. Nicephorus^[68] and Symeon Metaphrastes say that Herodias had it buried in the fortress of Machaerus (in accordance with Josephus). Other writers say that it was interred in Herod's palace at Jerusalem; there it was found during the reign of Constantine I, and thence secretly taken to Emesa where it was concealed, the place remaining unknown for years, until it was manifested by revelation in 453. However, the decapitation cloth of Saint John is kept at the Aachen Cathedral. The Coptic Christian Orthodox Church also claim to hold the relics of Saint John the Baptist. These are to be found in a monastery in Lower Egypt between Cairo and Alexandria. It is possible, with permission from the monks, to see the original tomb where the remains were found.

Another obscure claim relates to the town of Halifax in West Yorkshire, United Kingdom, where, as patron saint of the town, the Baptist's head appears on the official coat-of-arms.^[74] One legend (among others) bases the etymology of the town's place-name on "halig" (holy) and "fax" (face), claiming that a relic of the head, or face, of John the Baptist once existed in the town.^[75]

Also, in 2010, bones were discovered in the ruins of a Bulgarian church in the St. John the Forerunner Monastery (4th–17th centuries) on the Black Sea island of St. Ivan and two years later, after DNA and radio carbon testing proved the bones belonged to a Middle Eastern man who lived in the 1st century AD, scientists said that the remains could conceivably have belonged to John the Baptist.^[76]^[77] The remains, found in a reliquarium are presently kept in the Sts. Cyril and Methodius Cathedral in Sozopol.^[76]^[78]

Religious views

Christianity

Christians believe that John the Baptist had a specific role ordained by God as forerunner or precursor of Jesus, who was the foretold Messiah. The New Testament Gospels speak of this role. In {{Bibleref2|Luke 1:17}} the role of John is referred to as being "to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord." In {{Bibleref2|Luke 1:76}} as "...thou shalt go before the face of the Lord to prepare his ways" and in {{Bibleref2|Luke 1:77}} as being "To give knowledge of salvation unto his people by the remission of their sins."

There are several passages within the Old Testament which are interpreted by Christians as being prophetic of John the Baptist in this role. These include a passage in the Book of Malachi ({{Bibleref2|Malachi 3:1}}) that refers to a prophet who would prepare the way of the Lord:

The Jews of Jesus' day expected Elijah to come before the Messiah; indeed, some present day Jews continue to await Elijah's coming as well, as in the Cup of Elijah the Prophet in the Passover Seder. This is why the disciples ask Jesus in {{Bibleref2|Matthew 17:10}}, 'Why then say the scribes that Elias must first come?' The disciples are then told by Jesus that Elijah came in the person of John the Baptist,

These passages are applied to John in the Synoptic Gospels.^[80]^[81]^[82] But where Matthew specifically identifies John the Baptist as Elijah's spiritual successor ({{Bibleref2|Matthew 11.14, 17.13}}), the gospels of Mark and Luke are silent on the matter. The Gospel of John states that John the Baptist denied that he was Elijah.

Influence on Paul

Many scholars believe there was contact between the early church in the Apostolic Age and what is called the "Qumran-Essene community".^[83] The Dead Sea Scrolls were found at Qumran, which the majority of historians and archaeologists identify as an Essene settlement.^[84]

John the Baptist is thought to have been either an Essene or "associated" with the community at Khirbet Qumran. According to the Book of Acts, Paul met some "disciples of John" in Ephesus.^[85]

Due to influence of Qumranic terminology and ideas in Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, some scholars believe that the "disciples" mentioned in {{Bibleref2|Acts 19:1–7}} were disciples of John the Baptist.{{dubious|The Acts text is quite clear: they WERE disciples of John the Baptist. Either a mistake here, or an unaddressed deeper interpretation-eather way, it needs fixing.|date=January 2018}} This view, which assumes that John was an Essene{{dubious|Sentence makes no sense; it stands in no logical, causal connection to the previous passage. A mess, needs fixing.|date=January 2018}}, is debated by scholars. While John the Baptist practiced baptism, the Essenes used ritual washing, also called ablution, as a form of spiritual purification.^[83]

Catholic Church

According to Frederick Holweck, at the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary to his mother Elizabeth, as recounted in Luke 1:39-57, John, sensing the presence of his Jesus, upon the arrival of Mary, leaped in the womb of his mother; he was then cleansed from original sin and filled with the grace of God.^[86] In her Treatise of Prayer, Saint Catherine of Siena includes a brief altercation with the Devil regarding her fight due to the Devil attempting to lure her with vanity and flattery. Speaking in the first person, Catherine responds to the Devil with the following words:

The Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox faithful believe that John was the last of the Old Testament prophets, thus serving as a bridge between that period of revelation and the New Covenant. They also teach that, following his death, John descended into Hades and there once more preached that Jesus the Messiah was coming, so he was the Forerunner of Christ in death as he had been in life. Eastern Catholic and Orthodox churches will often have an icon of Saint John the Baptist in a place of honor on the iconostasis, and he is frequently mentioned during the Divine Services. Every Tuesday throughout the year is dedicated to his memory.

The Eastern Orthodox Church remembers Saint John the Forerunner on six separate feast days, listed here in order in which they occur during the church year (which begins on September 1):

In addition to the above, 5 September is the commemoration of Zechariah and Elizabeth, Saint John's parents. The Russian Orthodox Church observes 12 October as the Transfer of the Right Hand of the Forerunner from Malta to Gatchina (1799).

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ teaches that John the Baptist appeared on the banks of the Susquehanna River near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania as a resurrected being to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery on May 15, 1829, and ordained them to the Aaronic Priesthood.^[93]^[94] According to the Church's dispensational view of religious history, John's ministry has operated in three dispensations: he was the last of the prophets under the law of Moses; he was the first of the New Testament prophets; and he was sent to confirm the Aaronic Priesthood in our day (the dispensation of the fulness of times). Latter-day Saints believe John's ministry was foretold by two prophets whose teachings are included in the Book of Mormon: Lehi^[95] and his son Nephi.^[96]^[97]

Gnosticism

In Gnosticism, John the Baptist was a "personification" of the Old Testament prophet Elijah. Elijah did not know the True God (as opposed to the Abrahamic God), and thus had to be reincarnated in Gnostic theology. As predicted by the Old Testament prophet Malachi, Elijah must "come first" to herald the coming of Jesus Christ. Modern anthroposophy concurs with the idea that the Baptist was a reincarnation of Elijah, (cf. Mark 9:11–13),^[98] Matthew 11:13–14,^[99] Luke 7:27^[100] although John the Baptist in the Gospel of John explicitly denies being linked to Elijah (John 1:21).^[101]^[102]

Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism

Among the early Judeo-Christian Gnostics the Ebionites held that John, along with Jesus and James the Just – all of whom they revered – were vegetarians.^[103]^[104]^[105]^[106]^[107]^[108] Epiphanius of Salamis records that this group had amended their Gospel of Matthew, known today as the Gospel of the Ebionites, to change where John eats "locusts" to read "honey cakes" or "manna".^[109]^[110]

Mandaeans

John the Baptist is considered the chief prophet of the Mandaeans, and plays a large part in some of their writings,^[111] including the Ginza Rba and the Draša D-Iahia (The Mandaean Book of John). They view John as the only true Messiah, and are opposed to Jesus.^[112] The Mandaean scriptures state: "If the carpenter [Jesus] has joined together the god, who then has joined together the carpenter?"^[113]

John is also honored as a Nabi ({{lang-ar|نَـبِي}}, Prophet) as Yaḥyā ibn Zakarīyā ({{lang|ar|يَـحـيٰى بن زَكَـرِيّا}})^[114]), or "Jehiah, son of Zechariah", or simply Yaḥyā ({{lang-ar|يحيى}}). He is believed by Muslims to have been a witness to the word of God, and a prophet who would herald the coming of Jesus.^[115] His father Zechariah was also an Islamic prophet. Islamic tradition maintains that John was one of the prophets whom Muhammad met on the night of the Mi'raj,^[116] his ascension through the Seven Heavens. It is said that he met John and Jesus in the second heaven, where Muhammad greeted his two brothers before ascending with archangel Gabriel to the third heaven. John's story was also told to the Abyssinian king during the Muslim refugees' Migration to Abyssinia.^[117] According to the Qur'an, John was one on whom God sent peace on the day that he was born and the day that he died.^[118]

Quran

In the Quran, God frequently mentions Zechariah's continuous praying for the birth of a son. Zechariah's wife, mentioned in the New Testament as Elizabeth, was barren and therefore the birth of a child seemed impossible.^[119] As a gift from God, Zechariah (or Zakaria) was given a son by the name of "Yaḥya", a name specially chosen for this child alone. In accordance with Zechariah's prayer, God made John and Jesus, who according to exegesis was born six months later,^[120] renew the message of God, which had been corrupted and lost by the Israelites. As the Quran says:

He said: "O my Lord! How shall I have a son, when my wife is barren and I have grown quite decrepit from old age?"

He said: "So (it will be) thy Lord saith, 'that is easy for Me: I did indeed create thee before, when thou hadst been nothing!'"

(Zakarya) said: "O my Lord! give me a Sign." "Thy Sign," was the answer, "Shall be that thou shalt speak to no man for three nights."|Quran, sura 19 (Maryam), verse 7^[121]}}

John was exhorted to hold fast to the Scripture and was given wisdom by God while still a child.^[122] He was pure and devout, and walked well in the presence of God. He was dutiful towards his parents and he was not arrogant or rebellious. John's reading and understanding of the scriptures, when only a child, surpassed even that of the greatest scholars of the time.^[119] Muslim exegesis narrates that Jesus sent John out with twelve disciples,^[123] who preached the message before Jesus called his own disciples.^[120] The Quran says:

John was a classical prophet,^[124] who was exalted high by God, for his bold denouncing of all things sinful. Furthermore, the Qur'an speaks of John's gentle pity and love and his humble attitude towards life, for which he was granted the Purity of Life:

John is also honored highly in Sufism as well as Islamic mysticism, primarily because of the Quran's description of John's chastity and kindness.^[125] Sufis have frequently applied commentaries on the passages on John in the Quran, primarily concerning the God-given gift of "Wisdom" which he acquired in youth as well as his parallels with Jesus. Although several phrases used to describe John and Jesus are virtually identical in the Quran, the manner in which they are expressed is different.^[126]

Name

It has been claimed that the Quran is mistaken in saying that John the Baptist was the first to receive this name ({{Cite quran|19|7|e=10|s=ns}}), since the name Yoḥanan occurs many times before John the Baptist.^[127] However, according to Islamic scholars, "Yaḥyā" is not the same name as "Yoḥanan".^[128] Despite this, "Yaḥyā" is etymologically the same name as the Biblical figure Yᵉchîyâh (English rendering: "Jehiah") of the Books of the Chronicles.^[129] Therefore, the Qur'an in Surah 19:7 is likely not claiming that "no one was ever given the name Yahya before this child". Rather, this Qur'an verse is a clear reference to the Biblical account of the miraculous naming of John, which accounted that he was almost named "Zacharias"^[130]^[131] (Greek: Ζαχαρίας)^[132] after his father's name, as no one in the lineage of his father Zacharias (also known as Zechariah) had been named "John" ("Yohanan"/"Yoannes") before him.^[133]

The exegetes frequently connected the name with the meaning of "to quicken" or "to make alive" in reference to John's mother's barrenness, which was cured by God, as well as John's preaching, which, as Muslims believe, "made alive" the faith of Israel.^[134] This is the same meaning as the Hebrew name Yᵉchîyâh (יְחִיָּה; "Jehiah") (lit.: "YHWH lives").^[129] Yᵉchîyâh was also the name of one of the doorkeepers for the Ark of the Covenant during the reign of King David in the Bible.^[135] Because of this, it is supposed that this name "Yaḥyā" was commonly used in the 6th–7th centuries CE by Arab Christians as an allegorical honorific of John the Baptist (Arabic: يُوحَنَّا الْمَعْمَدَانُ, Yūḥanna al-Mamadan), who considered him to be a "doorkeeper" for the "Ark of the New Covenant", Jesus Christ (Arabic: يَسُوعَ الْمَسِيحِ, Yasū'u l-Masīḥ).^[136]

The Quran also mentions a root used in the Hebrew name, 'Yohanan' {{lang|he|יוֹחָנָן|rtl=yes}} (Yahweh is gracious). Sura Maryam: 12–13 describes the virtues of Yahya: {{lang|ar|وَآتَيْنَاهُ الْحُكْمَ صَبِيًّا – وَحَنَانًا مِّن لَّدُنَّا وَزَكَاةً}} (And We gave him judgement, while yet a boy – And affection from Us, and purity.) Here 'Ḥanān' ({{lang|ar|حنان|rtl=yes}}, Affection) is an Arabic word corresponding to the same root used in the Hebrew/Aramaic 'Yohanan'.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}{{dubious|date=April 2015}}

Bahá'í view

Bahá'ís consider John to have been a prophet of God who like all other prophets was sent to instill the knowledge of God, promote unity among the people of the world, and to show people the correct way to live.^[137] There are numerous quotations in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh, Founder of the Bahá'í Faith mentioning John the Baptist. He is regarded by Bahá'ís as a lesser Prophet.^[19] Bahá'u'lláh claimed that his Forerunner, the Báb, was the spiritual return of John the Baptist. In his letter to Pope Pius IX, Bahá'u'lláh wrote:

John is believed to have had the specific role of foretelling and preparing the way for Jesus. In condemning those who had 'turned aside' from him, Bahá'u'lláh, compared them to the followers of John the Baptist, who, he said, 'protested against Him Who was the Spirit (Jesus) saying: "The dispensation of John hath not yet ended; wherefore hast thou come?" Bahá'u'lláh believed that the Báb played the same role as John in preparing the people for his own coming. As such Bahá'u'lláh refers to the Báb as 'My Forerunner', the Forerunner being a title that Christians reserve for John the Baptist.^[139]

However, Bahá'ís consider the Báb to be a greater Prophet (Manifestation of God) and thus possessed of a far greater station than John the Baptist.

Unification Church

The Unification Church teaches that God intended John to help Jesus during his public ministry in Judea. In particular, John should have done everything in his power to persuade the Jewish people that Jesus was the Messiah. He was to become Jesus' main disciple and John's disciples were to become Jesus' disciples. Unfortunately John didn't follow Jesus and continued his own way of baptizing people. Moreover, John also denied that he was Elijah when queried by several Jewish leaders {{bibleverse||John|1:21|NKJV}} contradicting Jesus who stated John is Elijah who was to come, {{bibleverse||Matthew|11:14|NKJV}}. Many Jews therefore, could not accept Jesus as the Messiah because John denied being Elijah, as the prophet's appearance was a prerequisite for the Messiah's arrival as stated in {{bibleverse||Malachi|4:5|NKJV}}. According to the Unification Church, "John the Baptist was in the position of representing Elijah's physical body, making himself identical with Elijah from the standpoint of their mission."

Jesus stated in {{bibleverse||Matthew|11:11|NKJV}}, "there has not risen one greater than John the Baptist," however, in referring to John's blocking the way of the Jews' understanding of himself as the Messiah, said "yet he who is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he." John's failure to follow Jesus became the chief obstacle to the fulfillment of Jesus' mission.^[140]^[141]^[142]

Other scholarship

Inside of mainstream Christianity, various scholars and professionals have studied John the Baptist, particularly his relationship with Jesus of Nazareth, and have commented on the difficulties they found between the two men.

For example, as reported in The Christian Post, professor Candida Moss, of New Testament and early Christianity at the University of Notre Dame, who appeared in a documentary series "Finding Jesus, Faith Fact Forgery," noted John and Jesus become "de facto competitors in the ancient religious marketplace." Even after baptizing Jesus, John did not follow Jesus but maintained a separate ministry.

After John's death, Jesus' followers had to differentiate him from the executed prophet, "countering the prevalent idea that Jesus was actually John raised from the dead." Disciples present before Jesus indicated some people believed he was John the Baptist ({{bibleref2|Matthew|16:13-14|NET}}). ^[143]

Michael H. Crosby, Ph.D., Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley, CA; Capuchin friar and priest; in his paper "Why Didn’t John the Baptist Commit Himself to Jesus as a Disciple?," stated there was "no biblical evidence indicating that John the Baptist ever became a disciple of Jesus." He conveys that John's concept of what a messiah should be, was in contrast to how Jesus presented himself, and kept him from becoming a disciple of Jesus. Crosby identifies 25 points in the Gospel accounts that lead to the conclusion that John's effectiveness as a “Precursor” in encouraging others to follow Jesus was very minimal, since the scriptures record only two of his own followers became Jesus’ disciples. Crosby noted, while many others believed Jesus' miracles, there is no record of these "signs" convincing John, who continued a separate baptismal ministry, creating disciples resulting in a community that still exists in parts of the Middle East.^[144]

Crosby stated "an unbiased reading about John the Baptist "leaves us with the figure of John the Baptist as a reformist Jew who also may have wanted desperately to become a believer but was unable to become convinced of Jesus’ messiahship." ^[145]

Robert L. Deffinbaugh, graduate from Dallas Theological Seminary pastor/teacher and elder at Community Bible Chapel in Richardson, Texas, wrote a paper "John's Problem with Jesus ({{bibleref2|Luke|7:18-35|NET}})." He examines the incident where the imprisoned John the Baptist, after receiving news about Jesus, sends two of his disciples asking Jesus if he were the Messiah or another should be sought.

John is not asking an incidental question, but instead is issuing a public challenge precipitating a crises since the message was presented to Jesus while he was with a gathered crowd. The implication was, if Jesus failed to answer the question satisfactorily "we will look for someone else to be the Messiah." Deffinbaugh conveys John might have been looking for inauguration of the kingdom of God in a more dramatic way than what Jesus was implementing, as John had previously warned that "Messiah would come with fire." Jesus answered the question by evidence of his miracle works and teachings which themselves gave evidence of his identity, "The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor.” ({{bibleref2|Luke|7:22|NET}}).^[146]

In art

The beheading of Saint John the Baptist is a standard theme in Christian art,^[147] in which John's head is often depicted on a platter, which represents the request of Herod's stepdaughter, Salome.^[148] He is also depicted as an ascetic wearing camel hair, with a staff and scroll inscribed Ecce Agnus Dei, or bearing a book or dish with a lamb on it.^[13] In Orthodox icons, he often has angel's wings, since Mark 1:2 describes him as a messenger.^[149]

The Baptism of Christ was one of the earliest scenes from the Life of Christ to be frequently depicted in Early Christian art, and John's tall, thin, even gaunt, and bearded figure is already established by the 5th century. Only he and Jesus are consistently shown with long hair from Early Christian times, when the apostles generally have trim classical cuts; in fact John is more consistently depicted in this way than Jesus. In Byzantine art the composition of the Deesis came to be included in every Eastern Orthodox church, as remains the case to this day. Here John and the Theotokos (Mary) flank a Christ Pantocrator and intercede for humanity; in many ways this is the equivalent of Western Crucifixions on roods and elsewhere, where John the Evangelist takes the place of John the Baptist (except in the idiosyncratic Isenheim Altarpiece). John the Baptist is very often shown on altarpieces designed for churches dedicated to him, or where the donor patron was named for him or there was some other connection of patronage – John was the patron saint of Florence, among many other cities, which means he features among the supporting saints in many important works.

A number of narrative scenes from his life were often shown on the predella of altarpieces dedicated to John, and other settings, notably the large series in grisaille fresco in the {{Interlanguage link multi|Chiostro dello Scalzo|it}}, which was Andrea del Sarto's largest work, and the frescoed Life by Domenico Ghirlandaio in the Tornabuoni Chapel, both in Florence. There is another important fresco cycle by Filippo Lippi in Prato Cathedral. These include the typical scenes:^[150] the Annunciation to Zechariah, John's birth, his naming by his father, the Visitation, John's departure for the desert, his preaching in the desert, the Baptism of Christ, John before Herod, the dance of Salome, and his beheading.

His birth, which unlike the Nativity of Jesus allowed a relatively wealthy domestic interior to be shown, became increasingly popular as a subject in the late Middle Ages, with depictions by Jan van Eyck in the Turin-Milan Hours and Ghirlandaio in the Tornabuoni Chapel being among the best known. His execution, a church feast-day, was often shown, and by the 15th-century scenes such as the dance of Salome became popular, sometimes, as in an engraving by Israhel van Meckenem, the interest of the artist is clearly in showing the life of Herod's court, given contemporary dress, as much as the martyrdom of the saint.^[151] Salome bearing John's head on a platter equally became a subject for the Northern Renaissance taste for images of glamorous but dangerous women (Delilah, Judith and others),^[152] and was often painted by Lucas Cranach the Elder and engraved by the Little Masters. These images remained popular into the Baroque, with Carlo Dolci painting at least three versions. John preaching, in a landscape setting, was a popular subject in Dutch art from Pieter Brueghel the Elder and his successors.

As a child (of varying age), he is sometimes shown from the 15th century in family scenes from the life of Christ such as the Presentation of Christ, the Marriage of the Virgin and the Holy Kinship. Leonardo da Vinci's versions of the Virgin of the Rocks were influential in establishing a Renaissance fashion for variations on the Madonna and Child that included John. Raphael in particular painted many compositions of the subject, such as the Alba Madonna, La belle jardinière, Aldobrandini Madonna, Madonna della seggiola, Madonna dell'Impannata, which were among his best-known works. John was also often shown by himself as an older child or adolescent, usually already wearing his distinctive dress and carrying a long thin wooden cross – another theme influenced by Leonardo, whose equivocal composition, reintroducing the camel-skin dress, was developed by Raphael Titian and Guido Reni among many others. Often he is accompanied by a lamb, especially in the many Early Netherlandish paintings which needed this attribute as he wore normal clothes. Caravaggio painted an especially large number of works including John, from at least five largely nude youths attributed to him, to three late works on his death – the great Execution in Malta, and two sombre Salomes with his head, one in Madrid, and one in London.

Amiens cathedral, which holds one of the alleged heads of the Baptist, has a biographical sequence in polychrome relief, dating from the 16th century. This stresses the execution and the disposal of the saint's remains.

A remarkable Pre-Raphaelite portrayal is Christ in the House of His Parents by John Everett Millais. Here the Baptist is shown as a child, wearing a loin covering of animal skins, hurrying into Joseph's carpenter shop with a bowl of water to join Mary, Joseph, and Mary's mother Anne in soothing the injured hand of Jesus. Artistic interest enjoyed a considerable revival at the end of the 19th century with Symbolist painters such as Gustave Moreau and Puvis de Chavannes (National Gallery, London). Oscar Wilde's play Salome was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley, giving rise to some of his most memorable images.

In poetry

The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose John the Baptist as one of biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.^[153]

In music

In film and television

John the Baptist has appeared in a number of screen adaptations of the life of Jesus. Actors who have played John include Robert Ryan in King of Kings (1961),^[156] Mario Socrate in The Gospel According to St. Matthew (1964),^[157] Charlton Heston in The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965),^[158] David Haskell in Godspell (1973),^[159] Michael York in Jesus of Nazareth (1977),^[160] and Andre Gregory in The Last Temptation of Christ (1988).^[161]

In Game

Commemoration

Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of Jordan: his beheading is said to have taken place in Machaerus in central Jordan.

Saint John the Baptist is the patron saint of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and its capital city, San Juan. In 1521, the island was given its formal name, "San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico", following the custom of christening a town with its formal name and the name which Christopher Columbus had originally given the island. The names "San Juan Bautista" and "Puerto Rico" were eventually used in reference to both city and island, leading to a reversal in terminology by most inhabitants largely due to a cartographic error. By 1746, the city's name ("Puerto Rico") had become that of the entire island, while the name for the island ("San Juan Bautista") had become that of the city. The official motto of Puerto Rico also references the saint: Joannes Est Nomen Eius (Latin for "his name is John", from Luke 1:63).

He is also a patron saint of French Canada, and Newfoundland. The Canadian cities of St. John's, Newfoundland (1497) and Saint John, New Brunswick (1604) were both named in his honor. In the United Kingdom, Saint John is the patron of Penzance, Cornwall. His feast day of June 24, celebrated officially in Quebec as the Fête Nationale du Québec, and in Newfoundland as Discovery Day.

In Scotland, he is the patron saint of Perth, which used to be known as St. John's Toun of Perth. The main church in the city is still the medieval Kirk of St. John the Baptist and the city's professional football club is called St Johnstone F.C.

Also, on the night of June 23 on to the 24th, Saint John is celebrated as the patron saint of Porto, the second largest city in Portugal. An article from June 2004 in The Guardian remarked that "Porto's Festa de São João is one of Europe's liveliest street festivals, yet it is relatively unknown outside the country".^[164]

He is also patron of the Knights Hospitaller of Jerusalem, Malta, Florence, and Genoa, Italy. John is patron saint of Xewkija, Gozo, Malta, which remember him with a great feast on the Sunday nearest to June 24.

Calamba City, Laguna, Calumpit, Bulacan, Balayan and Lian in Batangas, Sipocot and San Fernando, Camarines Sur, Daet, Camarines Norte and San Juan, Metro Manila are among several places in the Philippines that venerate John as the town or city patron. A common practise of many Filipino fiestas in his honour is bathing and the dousing of people in memory of John's iconic act. The custom is similar in form to Songkran and Holi, and serves as a playful respite from the intense tropical heat. While famed for the Black Nazarene it enshrines, Quiapo Church in Manila is actually dedicated to Saint John.

He is also patron of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Charleston, which covers the whole of South Carolina in the United States.

The Baptistines are the name given to a number of religious orders dedicated to the memory of John the Baptist.

Along with John the Evangelist, John the Baptist is claimed as a patron saint by the fraternal society of Free and Accepted Masons (better known as the Freemasons).^[165]

In many Mediterranean countries, the summer solstice is dedicated to St. John. The associated ritual is very similar to Midsummer celebrations in the Anglo-Saxon tradition.{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}

See also

References

Notes

Citations

1. ^Luke 1:36 indicates that John was born about six months before Jesus, whose birth cannot be dated later than early in 4 AD, L. Morris, "John The Baptist", ed. Geoffrey W Bromiley, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1938–1958), 1108.
2. ^{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y2KGVuym5OUC&q=baptist#v=snippet&q=baptist&f=false |last=Metzger |first=Bruce Manning | year=1993 | title=The Oxford Companion to the Bible | publisher=Oxford University Press | page=283 | quote=Herod beheaded John at Machaerus in 31 or 32 AD.|isbn=9780199743919 }}
3. ^{{cite book | author=Metzger |year=2004 | title=The Oxford Guide to People & Places of the Bible | publisher=Oxford University Press | page=103 | quote=Herod beheaded John at Machaerus in 31 or 32 AD. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=amlXOOaSuLMC&q=34#v=snippet&q=%22john%20the%20baptist%22&f=false |isbn=9780195176100 }}
4. ^Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty, pp. 268, 277.
5. ^¹Lang, Bernhard (2009) International Review of Biblical Studies Brill Academic Pub {{ISBN|9004172548}} p. 380 – "33/34 AD Herod Antipas's marriage to Herodias (and beginning of the ministry of Jesus in a sabbatical year); 35 AD – death of John the Baptist"
6. ^"born 1st decade BC, Judaea, Palestine, near Jerusalem—died 28–36 AD; feast day June 24"- [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-John-the-Baptist St. John the Baptist Encyclopædia Britannica online]
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.saint.gr/2329/saint.aspx |title=Ορθόδοξος Συναξαριστής :: Άγιος Ιωάννης Πρόδρομος και Βαπτιστής (Σύλληψη) |publisher=Saint.gr |date=September 23, 2012 |accessdate=October 20, 2012}}
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ecclesia.gr/greek/holysynod/commitees/art/art_timia_exodos.htm |title=H ΕΚΚΛΗΣΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΕΛΛΑΔΟΣ : Επιτροπές της Ιεράς Συνόδου – Συνοδική Επιτροπή επί της Εκκλησιαστικής Τέχνης και Μουσικής |publisher=Ecclesia.gr |date= |accessdate=October 20, 2012}}
9. ^{{cite web|author=παπα Γιώργης Δορμπαράκης |url=http://pgdorbas.blogspot.com/2012/01/blog-post_1935.html |title=ΑΚΟΛΟΥΘΕΙΝ: Η ΣΥΝΑΞΙΣ ΤΟΥ ΑΓΙΟΥ ΕΝΔΟΞΟΥ ΠΡΟΦΗΤΟΥ, ΠΡΟΔΡΟΜΟΥ ΚΑΙ ΒΑΠΤΙΣΤΟΥ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ (7 ΙΑΝΟΥΑΡΙΟΥ) |publisher=Pgdorbas.blogspot.com |date=January 26, 2012 |accessdate=October 20, 2012}}
10. ^¹{{cite web|url=https://st-takla.org/Full-Free-Coptic-Books/FreeCopticBooks-002-Holy-Arabic-Bible-Dictionary/28_E/E_291.html|title=يوحنا المعمدان - St-Takla.org|website=st-takla.org}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.antiochpatriarchate.org/ar/page/947/|title=النبي السابق يوحنا المعمدان|website=Antioch}}
12. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.thegrace.com/shakhsya/johnbapt.htm|title=سيرة يوحنا المعمدان ابن زكريا الكاهن|website=www.thegrace.com}}
13. ^¹Cross, F. L. (ed.) (2005) Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press {{ISBN|978-0-19-280290-3}}, article "John the Baptist, St"
14. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_sRLAwAAQBAJ|title=John the Baptizer and Prophet: A Socio-historic Study|last=Webb|first=Robert L.|publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers|isbn=9781597529860|location=Eugene, Oregon|publication-date=29 September 2006|pages=|orig-year=1991|date=2006-10-01}}
15. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xzrWAAAACAAJ|title=Friend of the Bridegroom: Meditations in the Life of John the Baptizer|last=Sykes|first=Robert Henry|publisher=Everyday Publications, Inc.|year=1982|isbn=9780888730527|location=|pages=|access-date=5 June 2016}}
16. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t_OP95pFWm0C|title=Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandaean John-Book|last=Mead|first=G.R.S.|publisher=Forgotten Books|year=|isbn=9781605062105|location=|pages=|access-date=5 June 2016}}
17. ^Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 18.5.2
18. ^Funk, Robert W. & the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper; "John the Baptist" cameo, p. 268
19. ^¹{{cite book|author=Compilations|editor=Hornby, Helen |year=1983|title=Lights of Guidance: A Bahá'í Reference File|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust, New Delhi, India|page=475|isbn=978-81-85091-46-4|url=http://bahai-library.com/hornby_lights_guidance_2&chapter=4#n1567}}
20. ^Funk, Robert W. & the Jesus Seminar (1998). The Acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.San Francisco: Harper; "Mark," pp. 51–161.
21. ^{{cite book|last=Meier|first=John|author-link=John P. Meier|title=Mentor, Message, and Miracles (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Vol. 2)|publisher=Anchor Bible|year=1994|volume=2|isbn=978-0-385-46992-0}}
22. ^Stephen L. Harris, Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. {{ISBN|1-55934-655-8}} {{bibleverse||Matthew|17:12–13}}
23. ^https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+1%3A36&version=KJV
24. ^Harris, Stephen L. (1985) Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield; p. 382
25. ^{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia= New Bible Dictionary | publisher = IVP reference collection | editor1 = Marshall, I. H. | editor2 = Millard, A. R. | editor3 = Packer, J. I. | isbn = 978-0-85110-636-6 | edition = Third | title = John the Baptist | year = 1988 }}
26. ^Edward Oliver James, Sacrament in Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/515366/sacrament
27. ^Charles M. Sennott, The body and the blood, Public Affairs Pub, 2003. p 234 [https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&tbo=1&q=%22most+biblical+historians+agree+indicates+that+John%22+%22waded+into+the+water+with+Jesus+from+the+eastern%22+bank&btnG=Search+Books Google Link]
28. ^Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee. Mark Allan Powell, published by Westminster John Knox Press, p. 47 [https://www.google.com/search?q=Few+would+doubt+the+basic+fact+Jesus+was+baptized+by+John&hl=en&num=100&lr=&ft=i&cr=&safe=images&um=1&ie=UTF-8&tbo=u&tbs=bks:1&source=og&sa=N&tab=wp "Few would doubt the basic fact...Jesus was baptized by John"]
29. ^Sanders, E.P. (1985) Jesus and Judaism. Philadelphia: Fortress Press; p. 91
30. ^James D. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered (Eerdmans, 2003) p. 350.
31. ^Robert L. Webb, 'John the Baptist and his relationship to Jesus', in Bruce David Chilton, Craig Alan Evans, Studying the Historical Jesus:Evaluations of the State of Current Research (BRILL, 1998) p. 219.
32. ^Harris, Stephen L. (1985) Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield {{bibleverse||John|1:36–40}}
33. ^¹Carl R. Kazmierski, John the Baptist: Prophet and Evangelist (Liturgical Press, 1996) p. 31.
34. ^John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington, The Gospel of Mark (Liturgical Press, 2005) p. 195.
35. ^¹{{cite book|author=Florence Morgan Gillman|title=Herodias: At Home in that Fox's Den|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rFRFe8QdO1gC|year=2003|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5108-7|pages=54–55}}
36. ^Geoff R. Webb, Mark at the Threshold: Applying Bakhtinian Categories to Markan Characterisation, (BRILL, 2008) pp 110–11.
37. ^John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington, The Gospel of Mark (Liturgical Press, 2005) p. 198.
38. ^Florence Morgan Gillman, Herodias: At Home in that Fox's Den (Liturgical Press, 2003) p. 80.
39. ^Florence Morgan Gillman, Herodias: At Home in that Fox's Den (Liturgical Press, 2003) pp. 81–83.
40. ^Geoff R. Webb, Mark at the Threshold: Applying Bakhtinian Categories to Markan Characterisation, (Brill, 2008) p. 107.
41. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah+40.3&version=NRSV|title=Isaiah 40.3 NRSV – A voice cries out: "In the wilderness |work=Bible Gateway}}
42. ^{{cite book|author=Steve Moyise|title=Jesus and Scripture: Studying the New Testament Use of the Old Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C9PRrvnVdzcC&pg=PA40|date=September 1, 2011|publisher=Baker Books|isbn=978-1-4412-3749-1|page=40}}
43. ^{{cite book|author=Walter Wink|title=John the Baptist in the Gospel Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWNe6CwgPKwC&pg=PA27|date=November 2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03130-1|page=27}}
44. ^Robert Horton Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary on His Handbook for a Mixed Church Under Persecution (Eerdmans, 1994) p. 286.
45. ^Libby Ahluwalia, Understanding Philosophy of Religion (Folens, 2008), p. 180.
46. ^Just, Arthur A.; Oden, Thomas C. (2003), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Gh6sFDUfq8cC&pg=PA10#v=onepage&q=%22barrenness%20and%20virginity%22&f=false Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture – Luke: New Testament III], InterVarsity Press; p. 10. {{ISBN|978-0830814886}} {{bibleverse||Luke|1:7|9}}
47. ^{{bibleverse||Luke|1:5|NRSV}}
48. ^'Aaron', In: Mills, Watson E. (ed.) (1998) Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, Vol. 5, Macon GA: Mercer University Press, {{ISBN|0-86554-299-6}}; p. 1
49. ^{{cite book|last=Englebert|first=Omer|title=The Lives of the Saints|place=New York|publisher=Barnes & Noble| isbn=978-1-56619-516-4|year=1951|page=529}}
50. ^Brown, Raymond Edward (1973), The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus, Paulist Press, p. 54
51. ^Vermes, Geza. The Nativity, p. 143.
52. ^Freed, Edwin D. (2001), The Stories of Jesus' Birth: a Critical Introduction Continuum International, pp. 87–90.
53. ^{{bibleverse||John|1:6-8|NKJV}}
54. ^{{bibleverse||John|1:23|NKJV}}, compare {{bibleverse||Isaiah|40:3|NKJV}}
55. ^{{citation|last=Vande Vrede|first=Keith|title=A Contrast Between Nicodemus and John the Baptist in the Gospel of John|volume=57|date=December 2014|pages=715–26|editor-last=Kostenberger|editor-first=Andreas|journal=Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society|issue=4|issn=0360-8808|editor-link=Andreas J. Köstenberger}}
56. ^{{bibleref2|John|3:22–36|9}}
57. ^{{bibleref2|John|3:30|31}}
58. ^{{bibleref2|John|4:2}}
59. ^{{bibleref2|John|5:35|ESV}}
60. ^{{cite book|author=Simon J. Joseph|title=Jesus, Q, and the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Judaic Approach to Q|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eskHkKgnxk8C&pg=PA130|year=2012|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-152120-1|pages=147–}}
61. ^{{cite web|url=http://carm.org/bible-difficulties/matthew-mark/was-john-baptist-really-elijah |title=Was John the Baptist really Elijah? | Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry |publisher=Carm.org |date=March 15, 2013 |accessdate=January 26, 2014}}
62. ^"Josephus, Flavius." In: Cross, F. L. (ed.) (2005) The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press
63. ^Flavius Josephus, Jewish Antiqities 18. 5. 2. (Translation by William Whiston). Original Greek.
64. ^{{cite book|last1=Hoehner|first1=Harold W.|title=Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ|page=101|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fS28b9GC1dcC&pg=PA101#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=9780310877103|date=2010-08-10}}
65. ^{{bibleverse||Mark|1:4|NRSV}}
66. ^Crossan, John Dominic (2007), God and Empire, London: HarperCollins, p. 117 ff
67. ^Benson's Commentary on Matthew 14, accessed 17 Jauuary 2017
68. ^Nicephorus, Ecclesiastical History I, ix. See Patrologia Graeca, cxlv.–cxlvii.
69. ^Lost Worlds: Knights Templar, July 10, 2006 video documentary on The History Channel, directed and written by Stuart Elliott
70. ^{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/7/newsid_4290000/4290719.stm|title=BBC ON THIS DAY - 7 - 2001: Thousands greet Pope in Syrian visit|publisher=}}
71. ^¹²{{cite news|last=Hooper|first=Simon|title=Are these the bones of John the Baptist?|url=http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/08/12/bulgaria.john.baptist.relics/index.html|publisher=Cable News Network. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc.|accessdate=August 31, 2011|date=August 30, 2010}}
72. ^{{cite web|url=http://hetq.am/en/diaspora/pilgrimage/|title=Hetq Online " Pilgrimage to the oldest Armenian Apostolic Church in India|publisher=Hetq.am|date=January 10, 2010|accessdate=February 14, 2010}}
73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.stmacariusmonastery.org/eabout.htm|title=The Monastery of St. Macarius the Great|publisher=Stmacariusmonastery.org|accessdate=February 14, 2010}}
74. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ngw.nl/heraldrywiki/index.php?title=Halifax_(Yorkshire) |title=Heraldry of the World; Civic heraldry of the United Kingdom; Halifax (Yorkshire) |publisher=Ralf Hartemink |access-date=6 February 2017}}
75. ^{{Cite web|url=http://imbolcfire.blogspot.co.uk/2010/06/holy-face-of-halifax.html|title=The Holy Face of Halifax|last=Roberts|first=Kai|date=19 June 2010|website=Omnia Exeunt In Mysterium|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160215165559/http://imbolcfire.blogspot.co.uk/2010/06/holy-face-of-halifax.html|archive-date=15 February 2016|dead-url=No|access-date=16 February 2017}}
76. ^¹{{cite web| title= John the Baptist's Bones Found? | author=Ker Than| publisher=National Geographic| url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/06/120618-john-the-baptist-bones-jesus-christ-bible-bulgaria-science-higham/| date=June 19, 2012}}
77. ^Moss, Candida. National Geographic: Search for the Head of John the Baptist. 19 April 2014.
78. ^Old Town Sozopol – Bulgaria's 'Rescued' Miracle and Its Modern Day Saviors. Sofia News Agency, October 10, 2011.
79. ^{{bibleverse||Malachi|3:1|NRSV}}
80. ^Mat 3:3 For this is he that was spoken of by the prophet Esaias, saying, The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.
81. ^Mar 1:2 As it is written in the prophets, Behold, I send my messenger before thy face, which shall prepare thy way before thee. Mar 1:3 The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Prepare ye the way of the Lord, make his paths straight.
82. ^Luk 1:16–17 And many of the children of Israel shall he turn to the Lord their God. And he shall go before him in the spirit and power of Elijah, to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just; to make ready a people prepared for the Lord.
83. ^¹{{Cite encyclopedia| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-508450-4| title = Paul, Letters of| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls| date = 2008| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195084504.001.0001/acref-9780195084504-e-383| doi-broken-date = 2018-09-22}}{{subscription|OUP}}
84. ^{{Cite encyclopedia| publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-506512-1| title = Essenes | encyclopedia = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East| date = 2011| doi = 10.1093/acref/9780195065121.001.0001/acref-9780195065121-e-354| doi-broken-date = 2018-09-22}}{{subscription|OUP}}
85. ^{{bibleref|Acts|19:1–7|NRSV}}
86. ^Holweck, Frederick. "Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 23 December 2018{{PD-notice}}
87. ^Treatise of Prayer. Retrieved 1-15-2012.
88. ^The Dialogue of Saint Catherine of Siena. Retrieved 1-15-2012
89. ^In late antiquity this feast in some churches marked the beginning of the Ecclesiastical Year; see Archbishop Peter (L'Huiller) of New York and New Jersey, "Liturgical Matters: "The Lukan Jump"", in: Newspaper of the Diocese of New York and New Jersey, Fall 1992.
90. ^{{cite web|url=http://scriptures.lds.org/en/dc/84|title=Doctrine and Covenants 84:27–28|publisher=Scriptures.lds.org|accessdate=February 14, 2010}}
91. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html |title=Section Five: 1842–1843 |publisher= |date= |accessdate=May 15, 2014}}
92. ^{{sourcetext|source=Teaching of The Prophet Joseph Smith Section Five 1842–43, p. 261}}
93. ^[D&C 13]; D&C 27:7–8
94. ^Joseph Smith History 1:68–72
95. ^{{cite web|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Book_of_Mormon/1_Nephi#10:7|title=1 Nephi 10:7–10|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624211708/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Book_of_Mormon/1_Nephi#10:7|archivedate=June 24, 2012|df=mdy-all}}
96. ^{{sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=1 Nephi|chapter=11|verse=27}}
97. ^{{sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=2 Nephi|chapter=31|verse=4|range=-18}}
98. ^{{bibleverse||Mark|9:11–13|NRSV}}
99. ^{{bibleverse||Matthew|11:13–14|NRSV}}
100. ^{{bibleverse||Luke|7:27|NRSV}}
101. ^{{bibleverse||John|1:21|NRSV}}
102. ^Sergei Prokofieff, The Mystery of John the Baptist and John the Evangelist Turning Point of Time: An Esoteric Study, Temple Lodge Publishing 2005, {{ISBN|1-902636-67-8}}
103. ^J Verheyden, Epiphanius on the Ebionites, in The image of the Judaeo-Christians in ancient Jewish and Christian literature, eds Peter J. Tomson, Doris Lambers-Petry, {{ISBN|3-16-148094-5}}, p. 188 "The vegetarianism of John the Baptist and of Jesus is an important issue too in the Ebionite interpretation of the Christian life. "
104. ^Robert Eisenman (1997), James the Brother of Jesus, p. 240 – "John (unlike Jesus) was both a 'Rechabite' or 'Nazarite' and vegetarian", p. 264 – "One suggestion is that John ate 'carobs'; there have been others. Epiphanius, in preserving what he calls 'the Ebionite Gospel', rails against the passage there claiming that John ate 'wild honey' and 'manna-like vegetarian cakes dipped in oil. ... John would have been one of those wilderness-dwelling, vegetable-eating persons", p. 326 – "They [the Nazerini] ate nothing but wild fruit milk and honey – probably the same food that John the Baptist also ate.", p. 367 – "We have already seen how in some traditions 'carobs' were said to have been the true composition of John's food.", p. 403 – "his [John's] diet was stems, roots and fruits. Like James and the other Nazirites/Rechabites, he is presented as a vegetarian ..".
105. ^James Tabor, The Jesus Dynasty p. 134 and footnotes p. 335, p. 134 – "The Greek New Testament gospels says John's diet consisted of "locusts and wild honey" but an ancient Hebrew version of Matthew insists that "locusts" is a mistake in Greek for a related Hebrew word that means a cake of some type, made from a desert plant, similar to the "manna" that the ancient Israelites ate in the desert on the days of Moses.(ref 9) Jesus describes John as "neither eating nor drinking," or "neither eating bread nor drinking wine." Such phrases indicate the lifestyle of one who is strictly vegetarian, avoids even bread since it has to be processed from grain, and shuns all alcohol.(ref 10) The idea is that one would eat only what grows naturally.(ref 11) It was a way of avoiding all refinements of civilization."
106. ^{{Cite book|author=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew|pages=102, 103|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-514183-2}} p. 102 – "Probably the most interesting of the changes from the familiar New Testament accounts of Jesus comes in the Gospel of the Ebionites description of John the Baptist, who, evidently, like his successor Jesus, maintained a strictly vegetarian cuisine."
107. ^James A. Kelhoffer, [https://books.google.com/books?id=uzTcB8yMnrcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+diet+of+John+the+Baptist:+%22Locusts+and+wild+honey%22+in+synoptic+and+patristic+interpretation&source=bl&ots=7qzE9F71rT&sig=msJN2Zz51fxsZ79KQoVDvkl4Uos&hl=en&ei=zGCqTf63I43egQf2jqD0BQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&sqi=2&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false The Diet of John the Baptist], {{ISBN|978-3-16-148460-5}}, pp. 19–21
108. ^{{cite book|author=G.R.S. Mead|title=Gnostic John the Baptizer: Selections from the Mandæan John-Book|page=104|publisher=Forgotten Books|year=2007|isbn=978-1-60506-210-5|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/gno/gjb/gjb-3.htm}} p. 104 – "And when he had been brought to Archelaus and the doctors of the Law had assembled, they asked him who he is and where he has been until then. And to this he made answer and spake: I am pure; [for] the Spirit of God hath led me on, and [I live on] cane and roots and tree-food."
109. ^Tabor (2006) Jesus Dynasty p. 334 (note 9) – "The Gospel of the Ebionites as quoted by the 4th-century writer Epiphanius. The Greek word for locusts (akris) is very similar to the Greek word for "honey cake" (ekris) that is used for the "manna" that the Israelites ate in the desert in the days of Moses (Exodus 16:32)" & p. 335 (note 11) – "There is an old Russian (Slavic) version of Josephus's Antiquities that describes John the Baptizer as living on 'roots and fruits of the tree' and insists that he never touches bread, even at Passover."
110. ^{{Cite book|author=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Lost Scriptures: Books that Did Not Make It into the New Testament|page=13|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-514182-5}} p. 13 – Referring to Epiphanius' quotation from the Gospel of the Ebionites in Panarion 30.13, "And his food, it says, was wild honey whose taste was of manna, as cake in oil".
111. ^Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 {{ISBN|978-0-19-280290-3}}), article Mandaeans
112. ^Willis Barnstone, Marvin Meyer The Gnostic Bible: Revised and Expanded Edition Shambhala Publications 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-834-82414-0}} page 550
113. ^{{cite web |url=http://essenes.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=350&Itemid=796 |title=Baptisms of Yeshu in ancient Mandaic scrolls – The Order of Nazorean Essenes |publisher=Essenes.net |date= |accessdate=October 20, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001111543/http://essenes.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=350&Itemid=796 |archive-date=October 1, 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=mdy-all }}
114. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.islam101.com/history/people/prophets/john.htm|title=Prophet John|publisher=}}
115. ^"Yahya", Encyclopedia of Islam
116. ^Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah, Mi'raj
117. ^Muhammad, Martin Lings, Abysinnia. etc.
118. ^¹{{Cite quran|19|13|e=15|s=ns}}
119. ^¹Lives of the Prophets, Leila Azzam, John and Zechariah
120. ^¹A–Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism, B. M. Wheeler, John the Baptist
121. ^{{Cite quran|19|7|e=10|s=ns}}
122. ^¹{{Cite quran|19|12|s=ns}}
123. ^Tabari, i, 712
124. ^Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Text, Translation and Commentary, Note. 905: "The third group consists not of men of action, but Preachers of Truth, who led solitary lives. Their epithet is: "the Righteous." They form a connected group round Jesus. Zachariah was the father of John the Baptist, who is referenced as "Elias, which was for to come" (Matt 11:14); and Elias is said to have been present and talked to Jesus at the Transfiguration on the Mount (Matt. 17:3)."
125. ^Encyclopedia of Islam, Yahya ibn Zakkariya, Online web.
126. ^Whereas the Quran itself gives blessings of peace to John (Quran 19:15), Jesus, in contrast, gives himself the blessings of peace. (Quran 19: 16–33)
127. ^A. Geiger, Judaism And Islam (English translation of Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen?), 1970, Ktav Publishing House Inc.: New York, p. 19.
128. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Contrad/External/yahya.html |title=And No One Had The Name Yahya (= John?) Before: A Linguistic & Exegetical Enquiry Into Qur'an 19:7 |publisher=Islamic-awareness.org |date= |accessdate=October 20, 2012}}
129. ^¹{{cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/topical/j/jehiah.htm|title=Topical Bible: Jehiah|website=biblehub.com}}
130. ^Young's Literal Translation of the Bible. Luke 1:59, 1:5, et al. http://www.biblestudytools.com/ylt/luke/1.html
131. ^King James Bible. Luke 1:59, 1:5, et al. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/Luke-Chapter-1/
132. ^Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη (1894 Scrivener NT). Luke 1:59, 1:5, et al. https://biblia.com/books/tr1894mr/Lk1?embeddedPreview=False
133. ^Luke 1:59–63
134. ^A. Jeffrey, Foreign Vocab. of the Qur'an, Baroda 1938, 290–1
135. ^I Chronicles 15:24
136. ^cf. I Chronicles 15:24 with Matthew 3:3
137. ^{{Cite book|title = Epistle to the Son of the Wolf|last = Effendi|first = Shoghi|publisher = Baha'i Publishing Trust|year = 1988|isbn = 9780877430483|location = Wilmette, Illinois|pages = 12}}
138. ^{{cite book|author=Bahá'u'lláh|authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh|year=2002|title=The Summons of the Lord of Hosts|publisher=Bahá'í World Centre|location=Haifa, Israel|page=63|isbn=978-0-85398-976-9|url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/SLH/slh-5.html#pg63}}
139. ^{{Cite book|title = Epistle to the Son of the Wolf|last = Effendi|first = Shoghi|publisher = Baha'i Publish Trust|year = 1988|isbn = 9780877430483|location = Wilmette, Illinois|pages = 157–158}}
140. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.unification.net/dp96/dp96-1-4.html |title=Exposition of the Divine Principle, 1996 Translation, Chapter 4|publisher=unification.net |accessdate=July 1, 2018 }}
141. ^DIVINE PRINCIPLE, PART I CHAPTER 4; ADVENT OF THE MESSIAH https://www.unification.net/dp73/dp73-1-4.html#1
142. ^5. The Fact That Jesus of Nazareth Was Not Accepted as Messiah Was Not Due to the People's Lack Of Faith In God. https://www.tparents.org/Library/Unification/Publications/Other-Pub/Uc-jewsh.htm
143. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/were-jesus-and-john-the-baptist-competitors-finding-jesus-professor-describes-their-relationship.html|title=Were Jesus and John the Baptist Competitors? 'Finding Jesus' Professor Describes Their Relationship|website=www.christianpost.com}}
144. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/12/disciples-st-john-baptist-under-attack-2013121593050127653.html|title=Disciples of St John the Baptist under attack|first=Karlos|last=Zurutuza|website=www.aljazeera.com}}
145. ^Crosby, Michael H. "Why Didn’t John the Baptist Commit Himself to Jesus as a Disciple?"; Biblical Theology Bulletin, Volume 38 Nov, 2008; p158 -162
146. ^https://bible.org/seriespage/22-johns-problem-jesus-luke-718-35 June 22, 2004
147. ^¹Wetterau, Bruce. World history. New York: Henry Holt and company. 1994.
148. ^The story appears in {{bibleverse||Matthew|14:8}} and {{bibleverse||Mark|6:25}}, without the name Salome
149. ^"John the Baptist, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
150. ^See Tornabuoni Chapel for further information on these scenes
151. ^{{cite web|url=http://artsmia.org/directories/art-finder/art-detail.cfm?directory=0&artist=10346&id=47973&class_2=Israhel%20van%20Meckenem&class_1=Artists|title=Engraving by Israhel van Meckenem|publisher=Artsmia.org|accessdate=February 14, 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111185904/http://artsmia.org/directories/art-finder/art-detail.cfm?directory=0&artist=10346&id=47973&class_2=Israhel%20van%20Meckenem&class_1=Artists|archivedate=January 11, 2009|df=mdy-all}}
152. ^On this see Chapter V, "The Power of Women", in H Diane Russell;Eva/Ave; Women in Renaissance and Baroque Prints; National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1990; {{ISBN|1-55861-039-1}}
153. ^Robin, Larsen and Levin, p. 368
154. ^[https://hymnary.org/person/Coffin_C Julian, John. Dictionary of Hymnology (1907)]
155. ^The Victor Book of the Opera, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1968.
156. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0055047/fullcredits|title=King of Kings (1961)|publisher=|via=www.imdb.com}}
157. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0058715/fullcredits|title=The Gospel According to St. Matthew (1964)|publisher=|via=www.imdb.com}}
158. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0059245/fullcredits|title=The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965)|publisher=|via=www.imdb.com}}
159. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0070121/fullcredits|title=Godspell (1973)|publisher=|via=www.imdb.com}}
160. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075520/fullcredits|title=Jesus of Nazareth (TV Mini-Series 1977)|publisher=|via=www.imdb.com}}
161. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0095497/fullcredits|title=The Last Temptation of Christ (1988)|publisher=|via=www.imdb.com}}
162. ^{{cite book|last1=Kharatyan|first1=Lusine|last2=Keskin|first2=Ismail|last3=Keshishyan|first3=Avetis|last4=Ozturk|first4=S. Aykut|last5=Khachatryan|first5=Nane|last6=Albayrak|first6=Nihal|last7=Hakobyan|first7=Karen|title=Moush, sweet Moush: Mapping Memories from Armenia and Turkey|url=http://www.anadolukultur.org/images/UserFiles/Documents/Editor/Moush_Sweet_Moush.pdf|publisher=The Institute for International Cooperation Of the German Adult Education Association (dvv international)|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103033505/http://www.anadolukultur.org/images/UserFiles/Documents/Editor/Moush_Sweet_Moush.pdf|archivedate=January 3, 2015|isbn=978-3-942755-12-2|date=2013|p=69|quote=The Saint Karapet Monastery is one of the oldest Armenian monasteries in Moush Valley, dating back to the 4th century when Gregory the Illuminator, founder of the Armenian Apostolic Church, is believed to have buried the relics of Saint John the Baptist (Karapet) here.}}
163. ^{{cite book|first=Kamsar|last=Avetisyan|authorlink=:hy:Կամսար Ավետիսյան|title=Հայրենագիտական էտյուդներ [Armenian studies sketches]|publisher=Sovetakan Grogh|location=Yerevan|language=hy|year=1979|contribution=Տարոնի պատմական հուշարձանները [Historical monuments of Taron]|url=http://armenianhouse.org/avetisyan/taron.html|p=204|quote=...ըստ ավանդության, Գրիգոր Լուսավորիչը ամփոփել է ս. Կարապետի և Աթանագինե եպիսկոպոսի նշխարները։}}
164. ^{{cite news|author=Matthew Hancock|url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2004/jun/12/portugal.guardiansaturdaytravelsection|title=There's only one São João|work=The Guardian|date=June 12, 2004|accessdate=February 14, 2010|location=London}}
165. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ward.html|title=Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry|publisher=Freemasons-freemasonry.com|accessdate=February 14, 2010}}