| 词条 | Igbo people in the Atlantic slave trade |
| 释义 |
Ethnic groups were fairly saturated in certain parts of the Americas because of planters preferences for certain African peoples.[5] The Igbo were dispersed to colonies such as Jamaica,[6] Cuba,[6] Haiti,[6] Barbados,[7] the colonies in the future United States,[8] Belize,[9] Trinidad and Tobago[10] among others. Elements of Igbo culture can still be found in these places. In the United States the Igbo were commonly found in the states of Maryland and Virginia.[11] How slaves were acquiredThe slave trade in this region really started to take off with the appearance of the first Portuguese Ships. There were multiple different ways that people were gathered or taken to be sold off to the Europeans. Most of the slaves that were taken were from the Igbo and the Ibibio peoples, as well as some of the smaller groups in the surrounding area. While some people were taken during raids and wars, it was not the most common way for people to become enslaves, contrary to popular belief. Possibly, one of the more common ways for people to become enslaved were to be sold off. For example, if a thief was caught in a village, the person would be sold to the slave traders by the elders. The elders would then use the money for the betterment of the community. Another example is for people who were unfaithful to their spouse. Women who had committed adultery could be sold off by their husbands. Another common way to be brought into slavery was to be sold, or "pawned" to settle debts. Children were often used to settle these debts. Kidnapping is also a common way to be forced into slavery. Slave traders would often seek out children who were alone, or small groups of people who were traveling and ambush them. This forced people to have to travel in rather large, armed, groups to protect themselves. Although this is similar to war and raiding, it is at a much smaller scale. Children who were home alone while their parents were working were especially easy targets for the slave traders. Adults were the most common ones taken, amounting to roughly 85% of the total slave trade from this region, children only made up about 15%. The main reason for this was because adults were already capable of performing hard labor, and had better chances of surviving the grueling journey across the sea. EffectsIt is estimated that a total of 1.4 million Igbo people were transported (via European ships) across the Atlantic in the era of Atlantic slave trade.[12] Most of these ships were British.[13] DispersalSome recorded populations of people of African descent on Caribbean islands recorded 2,863 Igbo on Trinidad and Tobago in an 1813 census;[14] 894 in Saint Lucia in an 1815 census;[15] 440 on Saint Kitts and Nevis in an 1817 census;[16] and 111 in Guayana in an 1819 census.[17][18] BarbadosThe Igbo were dispersed to Barbados in large numbers. Olaudah Equiano, a famous Igbo author, abolitionist and ex-slave, was dropped off there after being kidnapped from his hometown near the Bight of Biafra. After arriving in Barbados he was promptly shipped to Virginia.[19] At his time, 44 percent of the 90,000 Africans disembarking on the island (between 1751 and 1775) were from the bight. These Africans were therefore mainly of Igbo origin. The links between Barbados and the Bight of Biafra had begun in the mid-seventeenth century, with half of the African captives arriving on the island originating from there.[20] HaitiSome slaves arriving in Haiti included Igbo people who were considered suicidal and therefore unwanted by plantation owners. According to Adiele Afigbo there is still the Creole saying of Ibos pend'cor'a yo (the Ibo hang themselves).[21] Aspects of Haitian culture that exhibit this can be seen in the Ibo loa, a Haitian loa (or deity) created by the Igbo in the Vodun religion.[6] Jamaica{{Main|Igbo people in Jamaica}}Bonny and Calabar emerged as major embarkation points of enslaved West Africans destined for Jamaica's slave markets in the 18th century.[22] Dominated by Bristol and Liverpool slave ships, these ports were used primarily for the supply of slaves to British colonies in the Americas. In Jamaica, the bulk of Igbo slaves arrived relatively later than the rest of other arrivals of Africans on the Island in the period after the 1750s. There was a general rise in the number of enslaved people arriving to the Americas, particularly British Colonies, from the Bight of Biafra in the 18th century; the heaviest of these forced migrations occurred between 1790 and 1807.[23] The result of such slaving patterns made Jamaica, after Virginia, the second most common destination for slaves arriving from the Bight of Biafra; as the Igbo formed the majority from the bight, they became largely represented in Jamaica in the 18th and 19th century.[24] United States{{See also|Igbo American}}In the United States the Igbo slaves were known for being rebellious. In some states such as Georgia, the Igbo had a high suicide rate.[25][26][27] Igbo slaves were most numerous in the states of Maryland and Virginia,[28] In the 19th century the state of Virginia received around 37,000 slaves from Calabar of which 30,000 were Igbo according to Douglas B. Chambers.[28] The Frontier Culture Museum of Virginia estimates around 38% of captives taken to Virginia were from the Bight of Biafra.[29] Igbo peoples constituted the majority of enslaved Africans in Maryland.[28] Chambers has been quoted saying "My research suggests that perhaps 60 percent of black Americans have at least one Igbo ancestor..."[30] References1. ^{{cite book |title=Territorial Disputes and Resource Management: A Global Handbook |first=Rongxing |last=Guo |publisher=Nova Publishers |year=2006 |isbn=1-60021-445-2 |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z5Le627xQLgC&pg=PA130}} {{Reflist|group=N}}2. ^{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64296/Bight-of-Biafra |title=Bight of Biafra |publisher=Britannica Online Encyclopedia |accessdate=2008-11-19}} 3. ^{{cite book |title=African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame |first=Anne Caroline |last=Bailey |edition=illustrated |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-8070-5512-3 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YrIjNMu5_vsC&pg=PA80}} 4. ^{{cite book |title=The Slavery Reader |first=Gad J. |last=Heuman |author2=James Walvin |edition=illustrated |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-21303-7 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fovuZXifAtQC&pg=PA45}} 5. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.historynow.org/03_2005/historian3.html |publisher=History Now |title=African Immigration to Colonial America |first=Ira |last=Berlin |quote=(paragraph 11) "Preferences on both side of the Atlantic determined, to a considerable degree, which enslaved Africans went where and when, populating the mainland with unique combinations of African peoples and creating distinctive regional variations in the Americas." |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919230942/http://www.historynow.org/03_2005/historian3.html |archivedate=2008-09-19 |df= }} 6. ^1 2 3 {{cite book | last = Lovejoy | first = Paul | title = Identity in the Shadow of Slavery | publisher = Continuum International Publishing Group | pages=58–59 | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-8264-4725-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEHVCsSFRUcC&pg=PA58}} 7. ^{{cite book|title=Black Experience and the Empire |first=Philip D. |last=Morgan |author2=Sean Hawkins |isbn=0-19-926029-X |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |page=82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kG824iVy1BsC&pg=PA82}} 8. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.yorku.ca/nhp/areas/ethnic.htm |quote="As is now widely known, enslaved Africans were often concentrated in specific places in the diaspora...USA (Igbo)" |publisher=York University |title=Ethnic Identity in the Diaspora and the Nigerian Hinterland |location=Toronto, Canada |accessdate=2008-11-23}} 9. ^{{cite book|title=Africana |first=Anthony |last=Appiah |author2=Henry Louis Gates |isbn=0-465-00071-1 |page=212}} 10. ^{{cite book|title=Roots and Branches |first=Michael |last=Craton |isbn=0-08-025367-9 |publisher=University of Waterloo Dept. of History |page=125}} 11. ^{{cite book |title=Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia |first=Douglas B. |last=Chambers |edition=illustrated |publisher=Univ. Press of Mississippi |year=2005 |isbn=1-57806-706-5 |page=23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PrPxWLSrp78C&pg=PA23}} 12. ^{{cite book|title=The many-headed hydra: sailors, slaves, commoners, and the hidden history of the revolutionary Atlantic |first1=Peter |last1=Linebaugh |first2=Marcus Buford |last2=Rediker |publisher=Verso |year=2000 |isbn=1-85984-798-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Rtlbx15EVcC&pg=PA336 |page=336}} 13. ^{{cite book |title=Routes to slavery: direction, ethnicity, and mortality in the transatlantic slave trade |first1=David |last1=Eltis |first2=David |last2=Richardson |publisher= Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=0-7146-4820-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kuXEzQZQmawC&pg=PA73 |page=73}} 14. ^{{cite book|title=Slave populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 |first=B. W. |last=Higman |edition=reprint |page=450 |publisher=The Press, University of the West Indies |year=1995 |isbn=976-640-010-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGv5dC2hDV8C&pg=PA450}} 15. ^{{cite book|title=Slave populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 |first=B. W. |last=Higman |edition=reprint |publisher=The Press, University of the West Indies |year=1995 |isbn=976-640-010-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGv5dC2hDV8C}} 16. ^{{cite book|title=Slave populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 |first=B. W. |last=Higman |edition=reprint |page=443 |publisher=The Press, University of the West Indies |year=1995 |isbn=976-640-010-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGv5dC2hDV8C&pg=PA443}} 17. ^{{cite book|title=Slave populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 |first=B. W. |last=Higman |edition=reprint |page=455 |publisher=The Press, University of the West Indies |year=1995 |isbn=976-640-010-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGv5dC2hDV8C&pg=PA455}} 18. ^Slave population born in Africa may not express the complete number of people in these countries with Igbo ancestry at the time. 19. ^{{cite book|last=Equiano|first=Olaudah|year= 2005 | title =The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African|publisher=Gutenberg Project}} 20. ^{{cite book |title=Black Experience and the Empire |first1=Philip D. |last1=Morgan |first2=Sean |last2=Hawkins |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-19-929067-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11EBNE8Mb60C&pg=PA82 |page=82}} 21. ^{{cite book|first=Melville Jean |last=Herskovits |title=Life in a Haitian valley |publisher=Octagon Books |year=1964 |page=21}} 22. ^{{cite book|title=Trans-Atlantic dimensions of ethnicity in the African diaspora |first1=Paul E. |last1=Lovejoy |pages=85–86 |first2=David Vincent |last2=Trotman |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2003 |isbn=0-8264-4907-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSOyBs14tHEC&pg=PA85}} 23. ^{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Jamaican heritage |first=Olive |last=Senior |publisher=Twin Guinep Publishers |year=2003 |isbn=976-8007-14-1}} 24. ^{{cite book|title=Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia |first=Douglas B. |last=Chambers |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |pages=14, 159 |year=2009 |isbn=1-60473-246-6}} 25. ^{{cite book|title=Trans-Atlantic Dimensions of Ethnicity in the African Diaspora |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |isbn=0-8264-4907-7 |publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group |year=2003 |pages=}} 26. ^{{cite book|title=Voices of the Poor in Africa |first=Elizabeth Allo |last=Isichei |publisher=Boydell & Brewer |year=2002 |page=81}} 27. ^{{cite book|title=The River Flows on: Black Resistance, Culture, and Identity Formation in Early America |first=Walter C. |last=Rucker |isbn=0-8071-3109-1 |publisher=LSU Press |year=2006 |page=52}} 28. ^1 2 {{cite book |page=23 |title=Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia |isbn=1-57806-706-5 |last=Chambers |first=Douglas B. |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |date=March 1, 2005}} 29. ^{{cite web|url=http://frontiermuseum.org/exhibits/west_africa/why_the_igbo.php |title=West Africa: Why the Igbo? |publisher=Frontier Culture Museum of Virginia |accessdate=2009-05-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316074552/http://frontiermuseum.org/exhibits/west_africa/why_the_igbo.php |archivedate=March 16, 2009 }} 30. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.usm.edu/pr/prnews/apr05/chiefchambers.htm |title=Southern Miss history professor made chief in Nigerian royal lineage |publisher=University of Southern Mississippi |accessdate=2009-05-02 |date=April 15, 2005}} Further reading{{refbegin}}
External links
11 : History of Igboland|History of the Atlantic Ocean|History of South America|Igbo-American history|Calabar|Black British history|Forced migration|African slave trade|Slavery in North America|European colonisation in Africa|Slavery in the United States |
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