In 1810, Dobrnjac mutinied against Karađorđe and nearly succeeded in dislodging him. He was joined in his revolt by Milenko Stojković.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=47}} In June 1810, Russian troops entered Serbia for a second time, distributing weapons and supplies to Karađorđe and his followers. Field marshal Mikhail Kutuzov took part in planning joint actions against both the Ottomans and the mutineers.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=34}} By the following year, Dobrnjac and Stojković were defeated.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=47}} Karađorđe attempted to placate the mutineers. In January 1811, he established the People's Governing Council ({{lang-sh-Latn|Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet|links=no}}), a cabinet consisting of members who supported Karađorđe as well as those who opposed him.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|pp=73–74}} It consisted of twelve members, one for each of the nahije (districts) of rebel Serbia.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=80}} Karađorđe appointed Stojković as the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Nenadović as the Minister of the Interior, and Dobrnjac as the Minister of Justice. Also inducted into Karađorđe's cabinet were Mladen Milovanović, as the Minister of War; Dositej Obradović, as the Minister of Education; and Sima Marković, as the Minister of Finance. Dobrnjac and Stojković refused to accept the posts that were offered to them, fearing that their acceptance would legitimize Karađorđe and undermine their own position. Karađorđe accused them of insubordination and exiled them to Wallachia, replacing them with loyalists.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|pp=73–74}} The Governing Council soon recognized Karađorđe as Serbia's hereditary leader and pledged allegiance to his "lawful heirs".{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=80}}

Defeat

In mid-1812, Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the Treaty of Bucharest, bringing the Russo-Ottoman War to a close. For his efforts, Karađorđe received the Order of Saint Anna from the Russians. The Governing Council scrambled to take an oath of loyalty to Russia in the hope that this would garner them further protection, to no avail.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=76}} The Russian Emperor, Alexander, was aware of Napoleon's plans to invade Russia and desperately sought to return as many Russian soldiers as possible in order to repel the attack.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=34}}{{sfn|Judah|2000|p=53}} As part of the Treaty of Bucharest, the Russians and Ottomans agreed that Serbian fortifications built after 1804 were to be destroyed, while cities and forts from which the Ottomans had been expelled over the course of the uprising were to be reoccupied and garrisoned by Ottoman troops. In exchange, the Ottomans agreed to declare a general amnesty for former rebels, as well as to grant the Serbs of the Pashalik of Belgrade some degree of autonomy. As part of the agreement, the Russians agreed to withdraw their forces from Serbia, as well as from Wallachia and Moldavia. The Russians encouraged Karađorđe and his followers to negotiate directly with the Porte regarding the minutiae of the handover of cities and fortifications to the Ottomans. Trepidation filled the rebel camp once it became clear that there was nothing to prevent the Ottomans from exacting reprisals against the Pashalik's Serb population after the Russians withdrew. Karađorđe thus refused to abide by the terms of the Treaty of Bucharest and fighting continued.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=35}}

Deprived of foreign assistance, the rebels were quickly routed by the Ottomans, whose units were manned primarily by Albanians and Bosnian Muslims.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=82}}{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2002|p=30}} In early October, Karađorđe fled to the Austrian Empire.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=80}} He was joined by around 100,000 other Serbs fleeing the Ottoman advance, including 50,000 from Belgrade and its environs alone.{{sfn|Ninić|1989|p=93}} Belgrade fell later that month.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=82}}{{sfn|Castellan|1992|p=242}} The city's fall marked the end of the First Serbian Uprising.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=35}} The Ottomans singled out men and boys over the age of 15 for execution, and sold women and children into slavery. Torture was used extensively and executions were particularly brutal.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=82}} "Men were roasted alive, hanged by their feet over smoking straw until they asphyxiated, castrated, crushed with stones, and bastinadoed," one eyewitness wrote. "Their women and children were raped and sometimes taken by force to harems. Outside Stambul Gate in Belgrade, there were always on view the corpses of impaled Serbs being gnawed by packs of dogs."{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=84}}{{sfn|Glenny|2012|p=19}} Another account relays how infants and toddlers were boiled alive.{{sfn|Vovchenko|2016|pp=301–302}} In one day alone, 1,800 women and children were sold into slavery at a Belgrade market.{{sfnm|1a1=Petrovich|1y=1976|1p=81|2a1=Castellan|2y=1992|2p=243|3a1=Judah|3y=2000|3p=53}} Churches across the city were destroyed and mosques that had been converted into churches following the city's capture in 1806 were returned to their original use.{{sfn|Hall|1995|p=67}} Others were deliberately torched by the Ottomans for the purpose of inflicting suffering on the city's inhabitants. In one instance, several dozen Serb refugees seeking shelter in a mosque were burned alive inside.{{sfn|Vovchenko|2016|pp=301–302}}

In late October 1813, Hurshid Pasha declared a general amnesty for the rebels that had survived, though Karađorđe and some senior Orthodox clerics were specifically exempted.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=82}} Many rebel leaders agreed to lay down their arms, the most notable of these being Miloš Obrenović, the rebel commander in Užice.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=36}} A large number of Serb refugees subsequently returned to their homes, as did many of the Muslims that had been displaced in the fighting.{{sfn|Judah|2000|p=87}}

Exile, return to Serbia and death

Upon crossing the Danube, Karađorđe and his followers were arrested by the Austrian authorities. They were initially detained at the Petrovaradin Fortress in Novi Sad and later transferred to a prison in Graz. The Ottomans demanded that Karađorđe and the other rebel leaders be extradited to face punishment. The Austrians refused and instead turned them over to the Russians.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=110}} Karađorđe spent a year in Austrian custody before being allowed to go to Russia.{{sfn|Rehm|1992|p=392}} Like many of the other rebel leaders, he settled in Bessarabia.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=110}} He attempted to adjust to civilian life, commissioning a portrait of himself by the painter Vladimir Borovikovsky.{{sfn|Segesten|2011|loc=p. 142; p. 158, note 5}} In April 1815, Obrenović orchestrated another anti-Ottoman rebellion in Serbia, which came to be known as the Second Serbian Uprising. Unlike Karađorđe's revolt, the Second Serbian Uprising ended relatively quickly and resulted in a rebel victory. In November 1815, the Ottomans accepted Obrenović's demands for wide-ranging autonomy. The terms that they agreed to were identical to those rejected by Karađorđe in 1807.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=36}}

The Russians prohibited Karađorđe from returning to the Balkans to take part in the Second Serbian Uprising. Karađorđe objected and traveled to Saint Petersburg to plead his case, but was arrested and detained.{{sfn|Rehm|1992|p=392}} Upon his release, he joined the Filiki Eteria, a Greek nationalist secret society that intended to launch a pan-Balkan uprising against the Ottomans. The Filiki Eteria promised Karađorđe a position of military leadership in the planned uprising and offered to smuggle him into the Pashalik of Belgrade. Karađorđe secretly entered the Pashalik on {{OldStyleDate|24 July|1817|12 July}}, crossing the Danube together with his servant, Naum Krnar. He then contacted his kum, Vujica Vulićević, who offered him an abode in the oak forest of Radovanje Grove, near Velika Plana. Unbeknownst to Karađorđe, Vulićević was on Obrenović's payroll. After escorting Karađorđe and his servant to a tent in the forest, Vulićević informed Obrenović of Karađorđe's whereabouts through a courier. Shortly thereafter, he received a letter from Obrenović telling him that Karađorde was to be killed.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=110}} Vulićević enlisted one of his close confidantes, Danilo Novaković, to take Karađorđe's life. The following morning, just before sunrise, Novaković snuck into Karađorđe's tent and axed him to death while he slept. He then went to the riverside and shot Krnar with a rifle as he was gathering water. Karađorđe's lifeless body was beheaded.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=111}} His severed head was taken to Belgrade and presented to Marashli Ali Pasha,{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=111}} who had been appointed the governor of the Pashalik two years prior.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=36}} Ali Pasha had the head flayed, stuffed and sent to the Sultan himself.{{sfn|Petrovich|1976|p=111}}

Obrenović feared that Karađorđe's return would prompt the Ottomans to renege on the agreement reached by the Porte and Obrenović's followers in November 1815.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=86}} By extension, Karađorđe's murder precluded the Serbs of the Pashalik from taking part in the Balkan-wide rebellion that the Filiki Eteria had been planning.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=37}} In Constantinople, Karađorđe's head was impaled on a stake and left on public display for a week. His body was buried on Serbian soil, but his skull ended up in the hands of a Constantinople museum. It was stolen some years later and buried in Greece.{{sfn|Jovanović|1989|pp=70–72}}

Legacy

Karađorđe's descendants adopted the surname Karađorđević in his honour.{{sfn|Norris|2008|p=30}} His murder resulted in a violent, decades-long feud between his descendants and those of Obrenović, with the Serbian throne changing hands several times.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=37}}{{sfn|Judah|2000|pp=53, 56}} The feud came to an abrupt end in June 1903, when rebellious Royal Serbian Army officers killed the Obrenović king, Alexander, and his wife, Queen Draga, thereby rendering the Obrenović line extinct. Karađorđe's grandson, Peter Karađorđević, then ascended the throne.{{sfn|Singleton|1985|p=98}}{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2002|p=73}} In order to tie himself to his grandfather's legacy, Peter commissioned a bronze crown cast from a piece of Karađorđe's first cannon.{{sfn|Banac|1984|p=143}} In addition, the Order of Karađorđe's Star was introduced as Serbia's highest state decoration.{{sfn|Banac|1984|p=150}}{{sfn|Todić|2014|p=450}} The first feature-length film to emerge from Serbia and the Balkans, whose plot revolves around Karađorđe and his actions before, during and after the First Serbian Uprising, was released in 1911.{{sfn|Norris|2008|p=111}} Work soon began on the construction of the Church of Saint George, a Karađorđević dynasty mausoleum at Oplenac, near Topola.{{sfn|Jovanović|1989|pp=70–72}} In November 1918, Peter ascended the throne of the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was later renamed Yugoslavia.{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2002|p=111}} Karađorđe's head was repatriated from Greece in 1923 and reunited with the rest of his body. His remains were buried in a white marble sarcophagus within the church in 1930.{{sfn|Jovanović|1989|pp=70–72}} The Karađorđević dynasty ruled Yugoslavia until 1941, when its members were forced into exile by Germany's invasion and occupation of the country.{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2002|pp=137–139}} The monarchy was abolished by Josip Broz Tito's communist government in 1945.{{sfn|Pavlowitch|2002|pp=157–158}}

Misha Glenny, a journalist specializing in the Balkans, believes that the First Serbian Uprising "marked the beginning of modern history on the Balkan peninsula."{{sfn|Glenny|2012|p=2}} The uprising kindled the flame of ethno-religious nationalism among the Christians of Southeastern Europe and inspired the subsequent Greek War of Independence.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|2000|p=68}} Karađorđe's struggle against the Ottomans also had an important influence on the Bosnian Muslim revolutionary Husein Gradaščević, who instigated the Great Bosnian Uprising.{{sfn|Turhan|2014|p=206}} Karađorđe is viewed in a negative light by some modern Bosniaks. In 2011, the chief Mufti of the Islamic Community of Serbia, Muamer Zukorlić, filed a petition to rename a street in Sjenica named after Karađorđe. Zukorlić alleged that Karađorđe and his followers had indiscriminately targeted the town's residents in 1809, a notion disputed by Serbian historians.{{sfn|Barlovac 11 May 2011}} The historian Ivo Banac surmises that "there would be no Bosnian Muslims today" had Karađorđe extended his uprising west of the Drina.{{sfn|Banac|1996|p=132}}

Karađorđe's exploits were popularized across Europe by the linguist and folklorist Vuk Karadžić, who recorded and published the ballads of the blind gusle player and epic poet Filip Višnjić, many of which pertained to the First Serbian Uprising.{{sfn|Wilson|1970|pp=110–111}} Karađorđe is referenced in a number of works of 19th-century fiction. While he was still alive, the Hungarian dramatist {{Interlanguage link multi|István Balog|hu|3=Balog István (színművész)}} wrote a stage play about him, titled Black George, which premiered in August 1812.{{sfn|Gyõre|2007|pp=77–78}} Several years later, the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin penned a ballad about Karađorđe titled The Song of George the Black.{{sfn|Shaw|1993|p=163}} The Irish poet George Croly also wrote a ballad about him. Karađorđe is mentioned in Honoré de Balzac's 1842 novel A Start in Life, as the grandfather of one of the book's main characters.{{sfn|Goldsworthy|1998|p=24}} The Montenegrin prince-bishop and poet Petar II Petrović-Njegoš dedicated his 1847 epic poem The Mountain Wreath to "the ashes of the Father of Serbia", a reference to Karađorđe.{{sfn|Djilas|1966|p=332}}{{sfn|Wachtel|1998|p=45}} The surname Karamazov, used in the Russian writer Fyodor Dostoyevsky's 1880 novel The Brothers Karamazov, is believed to have partially been inspired by Karađorđe, whose exploits popularized the use of the prefix "kara" to mean "black" within Russia.{{sfn|Martinsen|2003|p=57}}

Karađorđe's likeness was featured on the obverse of five-million dinar banknotes issued by the National Bank of Yugoslavia in 1993 and 1994.{{sfn|Živančević-Sekeruš|2014|p=46}} The anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising's commencement, 15 February, is celebrated annually in Serbia through a public holiday known as Statehood Day, first introduced in July 2001.{{sfn|Šarić|2012|pp=38–39}} A statue of Karađorđe stands in front of Belgrade's Church of Saint Sava, within the eponymous Karađorđe's Park.{{sfn|Norris|2008|p=195}}

Family tree

Footnotes

References

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