“Kepone”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

CAS name: 1,1a,3,3a,4,5,5,5a,5b,6-decachlorooctahydro-1,3,4-metheno-2H-cyclobuta[cd]pentalen-2-one

Kepone, also known as chlordecone, is an organochlorine compound and a colourless solid. This compound is an obsolete insecticide related to Mirex and DDT. Its use was so disastrous that it is now prohibited in the western world, but only after many millions of kilograms had been produced.^[3] Kepone is a known persistent organic pollutant (POP), classified among the "dirty dozen" and banned globally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants as of 2011.

Toxicology

The LC50 (LC = lethal concentration) is 35 μg/ L for Etroplus maculatus,^[4] 0.022–0.095 mg/kg for blue gill and trout. Kepone bioaccumulates in animals by factors up to a million-fold. Workers with repeated exposure suffer severe convulsions resulting from degradation of the synaptic junctions.^[3] Chronic lower level exposure causes prostate cancer.

History

In the US, kepone was produced by Allied Signal Company and LifeSciences Product Company in Hopewell, Virginia. The improper handling and dumping of the substance into the nearby James River (U.S.) in the 1960s and 1970s drew national attention to its toxic effects on humans and wildlife. The product is similar to DDT and is a degradation product of Mirex.^[3] The history of Kepone incidents are reviewed in Who's Poisoning America?: Corporate Polluters and Their Victims in the Chemical Age (1982). In 2009, Kepone was included in the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants, which bans its production and use worldwide.^[6]

Case studies

James River estuary

Due to the pollution risks, many businesses and restaurants along the river suffered economic losses. In 1975 Governor Mills Godwin Jr. shut down the James River to fishing for 100 miles, from Richmond to the Chesapeake Bay. This ban remained in effect for 13 years, until efforts to clean up the river began to show results.^[7]

French Antilles

The French island of Martinique is heavily contaminated with kepone,^[8] following years of its unrestricted use on banana plantations.^[9]^[10] Despite a 1990 ban of the substance by France, the economically powerful planter community lobbied intensively to gain the power to continue using kepone until 1993. They had argued that no alternative pesticide was available, which has since been disputed. Tthe nearby island of Guadeloupe is also contaminated, but to a lesser extent. Since 2003, local authorities have restricted cultivation of crops because the soil has been seriously contaminated by kepone. Guadeloupe has one of the highest prostate cancer diagnosis rates in the world.^[11]

In popular culture

Synthesis

Kepone is made by dimerizing hexachlorocyclopentadiene and hydrolyzing to a ketone.^[12]

References

1. ^[https://archive.is/20121223055440/http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/iupac/1293.htm IUPAC Agrochemical information.]
2. ^¹²³⁴{{PGCH|0365}}
3. ^¹²Robert L. Metcalf "Insect Control" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry Wiley-VCH, Wienheim, 2002. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a14_263}}
4. ^Asifa KP, Chitra KC. (2015). Determination of Median Lethal Concentration (LC50) and Behavioral Effects of Chlordecone in the Cichlid fish, Etroplus maculatus. Int J. Sci.Res.4 (3):1473-75
5. ^{{cite journal|last1=Prossnitz|first1=Eric R.|last2=Barton|first2=Matthias|title=Estrogen biology: New insights into GPER function and clinical opportunities|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=389|issue=1–2|year=2014|pages=71–83|issn=0303-7207|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2014.02.002|pmid=24530924|pmc=4040308}}
6. ^Stockholm Convention. Listing of POPs in the Stockholm Convention: Annex A (Elimination). 2011; Available from: http://chm.pops.int/Convention/The%20POPs/tabid/673/language/fr-CH/Default.aspx.
7. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20140520042033/http://www.richmondmagazine.com/articles/whats-in-the-water-11-09-2008.html Jack Cooksey, "What's in the Water?"], Richmond Magazine, June 2007, accessed 13 June 2012.
8. ^{{cite journal | author = Durimel A.|display-authors=etal | year = 2013 | title = pH dependence of chlordecone adsorption on activated carbons and role of adsorbent physico-chemical properties | url = | journal = Chemical Engineering Journal | volume = 229 | issue = | pages = 239–349 | doi=10.1016/j.cej.2013.03.036}}
9. ^{{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=Alfred |last2=Ribero |first2=Christine |title=Alternative Agricultural Cropping Options for Chlordecone-Polluted Martinique |journal=Études Caribéennes |date=26 March 2014 |issue=26 |doi=10.4000/etudescaribeennes.6710}}{{open access}}
10. ^{{Cite journal|title = Bodies in the System|journal =Small Axe|date = 2013-11-01|issn = 0799-0537|pages = 182–192|volume = 17|issue = 3(42)|doi = 10.1215/07990537-2378991|first = Vanessa|last = Agard-Jones}}
11. ^{{cite news |title=France: Island Paradise With Contaminated Drinking Water |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/episode/0,,5542822,00.html |work=European Journal |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=26 May 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527120102/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/episode/0,,5542822,00.html |archivedate=2010-05-27}}
12. ^Survey of Industrial Chemistry byPhilip J. Chenier (2002), p. 484.