| 词条 | Kerguelen Plateau |
| 释义 |
The Kerguelen Plateau ({{IPAc-en|pron|ˈ|k|ɜr|ɡ|əl|ən}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ər|ˈ|ɡ|eɪ|l|ən}})[1] is an oceanic plateau and a large igneous province (LIP) located on the Antarctic Plate, in the southern Indian Ocean.[2] It is also a microcontinent and submerged continent. It is about {{cvt|3000|km}} to the southwest of Australia and is nearly three times the size of Japan. The plateau extends for more than {{cvt|2200|km}} in a northwest–southeast direction and lies in deep water. The plateau was produced by the Kerguelen hotspot, starting with or following the breakup of Gondwana about 130 million years ago. A small portion of the plateau breaks sea level, forming the Kerguelen Islands (a French territory) plus the Heard and McDonald Islands (an Australian territory). Intermittent volcanism continues on the Heard and McDonald Islands. Geographical extentSymmetrically across the Indian Ocean ridge and due west of Australia is the Broken Ridge underwater volcanic plateau, which at one time was contiguous with the Kerguelen Plateau before rifting by the mid-ocean ridge. To the north of Broken Ridge is the linear Ninety East Ridge which continues almost due north into the Bay of Bengal and is considered to be a hotspot track. One of the largest igneous provinces (LIPs) in the world, the Kerguelen Plateau covers an area of {{cvt|1250000|km2}} and rises {{cvt|2000|m}} above the surrounding oceanic basins.[3] Located on the Antarctic Plate, the Kerguelen Plateau is separated from Australia by the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR) and from Africa by the Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR). These two ridges meet at the Rodriguez Triple Junction. It is separated from Antarctica by Princess Elizabeth Trough and the Cooperation Sea. The eastern margin north of the William Ridge is steep and formed during the breakup between the Kerguelen Plateau and the Broken Ridge. The southern part of the margin is separated from the Australian–Antarctic Basin by the deep Labuan Basin.[4] Geological historyFrom the initial opening of the Indian Ocean until present, the Kerguelen hotspot has produced several now widely dispersed large-scale structures. The Southern Kerguelen Plateau (SKP) formed 119–110 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}; the Elan Bank 108–107 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}, named by Dennis E. Hayes of Lamont Doherty Easth Observatory}; the Central Kerguelen Plateau (CKP) 101–100 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}; the Broken Ridge (connected to CKP before the Eocene breakup) formed 95–94 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}; the Skiff Bank (east of Kerguelen archipelago) 69–68 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}; Northern Kerguelen Plateau (NKP) 35–34 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}; Ninety East Ridge formed 82–38 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} north to south; the Bunbury Basalt (western Australia) formed at 137-130.5 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} [5]; the Naturaliste Plateau (offshore western Australia) formed 132-128 Ma [6]; the Rajmahal Traps in northeast India 118–117 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}; and finally lamprophyres in India and Antarctica 115–114 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}.[7] India–Australia breakupThe oldest volcanism that can be attributed to the Kerguelen plume are the Bunbury Basalt (137-130.5 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} [5]) and Naturaliste Plateau (132-128 Ma [6]) in southwestern Australia, and the Rajmahal Traps in eastern India (118 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}). The formation of the oldest portion of the Kerguelen LIP and these continental basalts are linked to the opening of the eastern Indian Ocean.[8] The Bunbury Basalt is not of flood basalt dimension which suggest that the mantle underlying the newly formed Kerguelen hotspot was neither significantly hot, wet, or voluminous. In contrast, the magmatism that produced the Australia–India breakup 136–158 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} created the Wallaby Plateau, but no known hotspot has been linked to this event.[9] India–Antarctica breakupThe output from the Kerguelen hotspot peaked 120–95 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}, 12–70 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} after the India–Antarctica breakup. No ridges or hotspot tracks such as Walvis–Rio Grande, Chagos–Laccadive, Greenland–Scotland have been found in the Princess Elizabeth Trough between SKP and Antarctica or along India's conjugate eastern continental margin. The relation between the Kerguelen hotspot and these continental breakup and volcanic margins is instead similar to that between the Réunion hotspot and the Deccan Traps and the breakup between western India and the Seychelles.[9] The peak output of the Kerguelen hotspot coincides with one or several microcontinent formations, such as the Elan Bank.[9] Since the Indian Ocean began to open about 130 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}, the Kerguelen hotspot has moved 3–10° southward and, consequently, the spreading ridge between India and Antarctica has jumped northward one or several times. Parts of the Kerguelen Plateau, the Elan Bank and the SKP, were originally attached to India and are composed of continental lithosphere. One or several ridge jumps transformed the Elan Bank into a microcontinent and dispersed continental fragments in the SKP, and these structures were eventually left behind as India moved northward.[9] The ridge jump that made the Elan Bank a microcontinent occurred after 124 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}.[3] The development of the Southern Kerguelen Plateau (SKP) 118–119 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} contributed to the oceanic anoxic event 1.[10] Around 83.5 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} sea floor spreading between India and Antarctica was asymmetric in the Kerguelen Plateau region with two-thirds of the sea floor created being added to the Antarctic Plate. A ridge jump eventually transferred parts of the Kerguelen Plateau from the Indian Plate to the Antarctic Plate.[11] Cenozoic volcanismThe Kerguelen hotspot produced the {{cvt|5000|km}} long Ninety East Ridge 82–38 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}, and geochemical evidence suggests that this occurred at or near a spreading ridge. The lack of a conjugate structure on the Antarctic Plate, however, makes it unlikely that the hotspot was located at a spreading ridge during this long period. As the Antarctic Plate then moved over the Kerguelen hotspot the NKP formed over relatively old oceanic crust. Flood basalts in the Kerguelen archipelago formed 30–24 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} and less voluminous and more recent volcanism occurred until 1 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}. During the last 21 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} volcanic structures have formed on the CKP, including Heard Island, and both Heard and McDonald Islands have had recent eruptions.[9] 65 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}, the CKP–Broken Ridge LIP was located near the Kerguelen plume and the plate boundaries of the Indian Ocean. The LIP was the product of 25 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} of relatively high magmatic activity followed by a 40 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}} period of lower activity.[12] Microcontinent{{Harvnb|Schlich|Delteil|Moulin|Patriat|1971}} described tilted basement blocks near the Kerguelen archipelago and was the first to identify the Kerguelen Plateau as of continental origin, in contrast to other LIPs.[3][13]The presence of soil layers in the basalt which included charcoal and conglomerate fragments of gneiss indicate that much of the plateau was above sea level as what is termed a microcontinent for three periods between 100 million years ago and 20 million years ago.[14] (The charcoal was made by wildfires started by lightning or lava flows.) Large parts of the now submarine Southern (SKP) and Central Kerguelen Plateaus (CKP) were subaerial during the formation of the LIP. The SKP probably formed an island of {{cvt|500000|km2}} with major peaks reaching {{cvt|1000|-|2000|m}} above sea level.[15] The Kerguelen microcontinent may have been covered by dense conifer forest in the mid-Cretaceous.[16] It finally sank 20 million years ago and is now {{cvt|1000|-|2000|m}} below sea level.[17] BiodiversityDuring the austral summer there is a high density of migratory whales including sperm, minke, and humpback whales along the southern end of the Kerguelen Plateau and the northern part of the adjacent Princess Elizabeth Trough. These whales choose this location for foraging because the Southern Front of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is steered off by the plateau — resulting in a poleward extent for the Southern Front only found near the Kerguelen Plateau. This brings shoaled, nutrient-rich Upper Circumpolar Deep Water to the surface which brings macronutrients to the surface. Ice is additionally advected north along the eastern side of the plateau.[18] See also
ReferencesNotes1. ^Oxford English Dictionary 2. ^{{Harvnb|UT Austin 1999}} 3. ^1 2 {{Harvnb|Bénard|Callot|Vially|Schmitz|2010|loc=Introduction, pp. 1–2}} 4. ^{{Harvnb|Bénard|Callot|Vially|Schmitz|2010|loc=Geological and plate boundary setting, p. 2}} 5. ^1 {{Cite journal|date=2016-04-15|title=Bunbury Basalt: Gondwana breakup products or earliest vestiges of the Kerguelen mantle plume?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X1630019X|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|language=en|volume=440|pages=20–32|doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2016.02.008|issn=0012-821X|last1=Olierook|first1=Hugo K.H.|last2=Jourdan|first2=Fred|last3=Merle|first3=Renaud E.|last4=Timms|first4=Nicholas E.|last5=Kusznir|first5=Nick|last6=Muhling|first6=Janet R.}} 6. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Direen|first=N.|date=2017|title=Naturaliste Plateau: constraints on the timing and evolution of the Kerguelen Large Igneous Province and its role in Gondwana breakup|journal=Australian Journal of Earth Sciences|volume=64|issue=7|pages=851–869|doi=10.1080/08120099.2017.1367326|hdl=1912/9459}} 7. ^{{Harvnb|Frey|Coffin|Wallace|Weis|2003|loc=Geochronology, p. 4}} 8. ^{{Harvnb|Ingle|Scoates|Weis|Brügmann|2004|loc=Introduction, p. 84}} 9. ^1 2 3 4 {{Harvnb|Frey|Coffin|Wallace|Weis|2003|loc=The Kerguelen Hotspot and Indian Ocean Plate Reconstructions, pp. 5–7}} 10. ^{{Harvnb|Wallace|Frey|Weis|Coffin|2002|loc=1105–1106}} 11. ^{{Harvnb|Müller|Gaina|Clark|2000|loc=C34 Late Cretaceous (Santonian) 83.5 {{abbr|Ma|million years ago}}, p. 9}} 12. ^{{Harvnb|Whittaker|Williams|Müller|2013|loc=Abstract}} 13. ^{{Harvnb|Schlich|Delteil|Moulin|Patriat|1971|loc=p. 2062}}: Toutes ces caractéristiques, épaisse série sédimentaire plus ou moins structurée avec l'ensemble inférieur lié à une tectonique de socle, importance des accidents tectonique limitant le bassin sédimentaire, sont en faveur d'une origine contintentale du plateau de Kerguelen-Heard. 14. ^{{Cite journal | title = Leg 183 Summary: Kerguelen Plateau-Broken Ridge—A Large Igneous Province | journal = Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program | volume = 183 | url = http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/183_IR/chap_01/c1_1.htm}} 15. ^{{Harvnb|Frey|Coffin|Wallace|Weis|2003|loc=Subsidence of the Kerguelen Plateau, pp. 16–17}} 16. ^{{Harvnb|Mohr|Wähnert|Lazarus|2002|loc=Abstract}} 17. ^https://news.utexas.edu/1999/05/28/ut-austin-scientist-plays-major-role-in-study-of-underwater-micro-continent/ 18. ^{{Harvnb|Tynan|1997|loc=Introduction, p. 2793}} Sources{{Refbegin|30em}}
| last1 = Bénard | first1 = F. | last2 = Callot | first2 = J. P. | last3 = Vially | first3 = R. | last4 = Schmitz | first4 = J. | last5 = Roest | first5 = W. | last6 = Patriat | first6 = M. | last7 = Loubrieu | first7 = B. | last8 = The ExtraPlac Team | title = The Kerguelen plateau: Records from a long-living/composite microcontinent | year = 2010 | journal = Marine and Petroleum Geology | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 633–649 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223430656 | accessdate = September 6, 2015 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.08.011 | ref = harv}}
|title=UT Austin scientist plays major role in study of underwater "micro-continent" |publisher=University of Texas at Austin |date=May 28, 1999 |url=http://www1.cc.utexas.edu/opa/news/99newsreleases/nr_199905/nr_continent990528.html |accessdate=October 29, 2012 |ref={{Harvid|UT Austin 1999}} |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918195531/http://www1.cc.utexas.edu/opa/news/99newsreleases/nr_199905/nr_continent990528.html |archivedate=September 18, 2007 |df= }}
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| last = Tynan | first = C. T. | title = Cetacean distributions and oceanographic features near the Kerguelen Plateau | year = 1997 | journal = Geophysical Research Letters | volume = 24 | issue = 22 | pages = 2793–2796 | doi = 10.1029/97GL02860 | ref = harv}}
| last1 = Wallace | first1 = P. J. | last2 = Frey | first2 = F. A. | last3 = Weis | first3 = D. | last4 = Coffin | first4 = M. F. | year = 2002 | journal = Journal of Petrology | volume = 43 | issue =7 | pages = 1105–1108 | title = Origin and Evolution of the Kerguelen Plateau, Broken Ridge and Kerguelen Archipelago: Editorial | doi = 10.1093/petrology/43.7.1105 | ref = harv}}
| last1 = Whittaker | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Williams | first2 = S. E. | last3 = Müller | first3 = R. D. | title = Revised tectonic evolution of the Eastern Indian Ocean | year = 2013 | journal = Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems | volume = 14 | issue = 6 | pages = 1891–1909 | doi = 10.1002/ggge.20120 | ref = harv}}{{Refend}} External links
| title = Kerguelen plateau—broken ridge: a major lip related to the Kerguelen plume | last1 = Weis | first1 = D | last2 = Frey | first2 = F.A. | journal = Seventh Annual V. M. Goldschmidt Conference | year = 1997 | url = http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/gold/pdf/2062.pdf }}{{Large igneous provinces}}{{Continents of the world}}{{Tectonic plates}}{{coord|-55.2|76.1|dim:2000000|display=title}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Keguelen Plateau}} 8 : Large igneous provinces|Plateaus of the Indian Ocean|Historical continents|Landforms of the Kerguelen Islands|Continental fragments|Cretaceous volcanism|Volcanism of the Indian Ocean|Landforms of Heard Island and McDonald Islands |
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