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词条 List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain
释义

  1. Hawaiian archipelago

  2. Northwestern Hawaiian islands

  3. Emperor seamounts

  4. Notes

  5. References

  6. External links

{{Dynamic list}}

The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain is a series of volcanoes and seamounts extending across the Pacific Ocean. The chain has been produced by the movement of the ocean crust over the Hawai{{okina}}i hotspot, an upwelling of hot rock from the Earth's mantle. As the oceanic crust moves the volcanoes farther away from their source of magma, their eruptions become less frequent and less powerful until they eventually cease to erupt altogether. At that point, erosion of the volcano and subsidence of the seafloor cause the volcano to gradually diminish. As the volcano sinks and erodes, it first becomes an atoll island and then an atoll. Further subsidence causes the volcano to sink below the sea surface, becoming a seamount and/or a guyot.[1] This list documents the most significant volcanoes in the chain, ordered by distance from the hotspot; however, there are many others that have yet to be properly studied.

The chain can be divided into three subsections. The first, the Hawaiian archipelago (also known as the Windward isles), consists of the islands comprising the U.S. state of Hawai{{okina}}i (not to be confused with the island of Hawai{{okina}}i). As it is the closest to the hotspot, this volcanically active region is the youngest part of the chain, with ages ranging from 400,000 years[2] to 5.1 million years.[3] The island of Hawai{{okina}}i is comprised by five volcanoes, of which two (Kilauea and Mauna Loa) are still active. Lō{{okina}}ihi Seamount continues to grow offshore, and is the only known volcano in the chain in the submarine pre-shield stage.[1]

The second part of the chain is composed of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, collectively referred to as the Leeward isles, the constituents of which are between 7.2 and 27.7 million years in age.[3] Erosion has long since overtaken volcanic activity at these islands, and most of them are atolls, atoll islands, and extinct islands. They contain many of the most northerly atolls in the world; one of them, Kure Atoll, is the northern-most atoll in the world.[6] On June 15, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush issued a proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The national monument, meant to protect the biodiversity of the Hawaiian isles,[2] encompasses all of the northern isles, and is one of the largest such protected areas in the world. The proclamation limits tourism to the area, and calls for a phase-out of fishing by 2011.[3]

The oldest and most heavily eroded part of the chain are the Emperor seamounts, which are 39[9] to 85 million years in age.[4] The Emperor and Hawaiian chains are separated by a large L-shaped bend that causes the orientations of the chains to differ by about 60°. This bend was long attributed to a relatively sudden change in the direction of plate motion, but research conducted in 2003 suggests that it was the movement of the hotspot itself that caused the bend.[5] The issue is still currently under debate.[6] All of the volcanoes in this part of the chain have long since subsided below sea level, becoming seamounts and guyots (see also the seamount and guyot stages of Hawaiian volcanism). Many of the volcanoes are named after former emperors of Japan. The seamount chain extends to the West Pacific, and terminates at the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, a subduction zone at the border of Russia.[7]

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Hawaiian archipelago

Name Island Last eruption Coordinates Age (years)Notes
Lō{{okina}}ihi Seamount Seamount0000013|1996 (active)}}[2]18.54|N|155.27|W |type:mountain_region:US-HI |display=inline}}01|400,000}}[2]35|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} southeast of Hawai{{okina}}i. It will eventually breach sea level and become the newest Hawaiian island.[8]
Kīlauea Big Island 1983-2018 (active)[9]19|25|N|155|17|W|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}03|300,000–600,000}}[10] Kīlauea is considered one of the most active volcanoes on Earth.[11]

Kīlauea, was in near-continuous eruption on its East Rift Zone from January 3, 1983 to September 4, 2018 - making it the longest-lived rift-zone eruption of the last six centuries.[12]

Mauna Loa Big Island0000025|1984 (active)}}[13]19|28|46.3|N|155|36|09.6|W |type:mountain_region:US-HI |display=inline}}04|700,000–1 million}}[14] Largest volcano on Earth[13]
Hualālai Big Island0000208|1801 (active)}}[15]19|41|32|N|155|52|02|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI}}02|> 300,000}}[15] Lies on the western edge of the Big Island[15]
Mauna Kea Big Island0004460|4460 BP (dormant)}}19|49|14.39|N|155|28|05.04|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI_source:ngs|display=inline}}05|~1 million}}[16] World's tallest mountain if below-sea elevation is counted[17]
Kohala Big Island0120000|120,000 BP (extinct)}}[18]20|05|10|N|155|43|02|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI_source:ngs|display=inline}}06|~ 120,000–1 million}}[18] Oldest volcano that remains part of the island of Hawai{{okina}}i[18]
Māhukona Seamount0470000|470,000 BP (extinct)}}20|01|0|N|156|1|0|W|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}07|K-Ar 298,000±25,000 and 310,000±31,000[19][20]}} Submerged, having long since disappeared into the sea[21]
Haleakalā Maui0000300|between A.D. 1480 and 1600, oldest currently active volcano in the Hawaiian - Emperor seamount chain}}[35]display=inline|20|42|35|N|156|15|12|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI}}13|~ 2 million}}[22] Forms more than 75% of Maui[22]
West Maui Maui0320000|less than 320,000 BP (extinct)}}20|54|N|156|37|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}10|K-Ar 1.32±0.04 million}}[23] Very eroded shield volcano that makes up the western quarter of Maui
Kaho{{okina}}olawe Kaho{{okina}}olawe1000000|~1 MYA}}20|33|N|156|36|W|display=inline}}08|K-Ar > 1.03±0.18 million}}[23][24] Smallest of the 8 principal Hawaiian islands;[18] uninhabited[25]
Lāna{{okina}}i Lāna{{okina}}i1200000|1.2 MYA}}20|50|N|156|56|W|type:isle|display=inline}}09|K-Ar date of 1.28±0.04 million}}[23] Sixth-largest island[26] The only town is Lānaʻi City, a small settlement.
East Molokai Moloka{{okina}}i1300000|1.3 MYA}}21|7|N|156|51|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}11|K-Ar 1.76±0.04 million}}[23] The northern half of this volcano suffered a large collapse 1.5 million years ago.[27] Only the southern half remains above the sea today.[18]
West Moloka{{okina}}i Moloka{{okina}}i1760000|1.76 MYA}}21|9|N|157|14|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}12|K-Ar date of 1.9±0.06 million}}[23]
Penguin Bank Seamount—}}20|55|N|157|40|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}{{sort|14|~ 2.2 million}}[28] The seamount is a submarine volcano, southwest of Moloka{{okina}}i. The submarine volcano used to be part of Maui Nui, a prehistoric island made from seven shield volcanoes.
Ko{{okina}}olau Range O{{okina}}ahu0032000|<32,000 BP (possibly dormant)}}[29]21|19|N|157|46|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}15|2.7 million}}[30] A fragmented remnant of the eastern or windward shield volcano, which also suffered a large collapse sometime before the Moloka{{okina}}i collapse[27]
Wai{{okina}}anae Range O{{okina}}ahu2500000|~2.5 MYA}}[31]21|30|N|158|9|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}16|~1.7–3.9 million; K-Ar 3.7±0.1 million}}[23][30][31] The eroded remains of a shield volcano that comprised the western half of the island[31]
Ka{{okina}}ena Ridge O{{okina}}ahu2500000|<3.0 MYA}}[32]21|42|N|158|22|W|type:mountain_region:US-HI|display=inline}}[32]16|~3.5–4.9 million}}[32] The eroded remains of a shield volcano west of Wai{{okina}}anae that has since subsided below sea level[32]
Kaʻula Kaʻula2000000|>2 MYA}}21|39|N|160|32|W|source:eswiki|display=inline}}17|K-Ar 4.0±0.2 million}}[23] Tiny crescent-shaped barren island; uninhabited except for divers and fishermen[33]
Ni{{okina}}ihau Ni{{okina}}ihau2000000|2 MYA}}21|54|N|160|10|W|type:isle|display=inline}}18|K-Ar 4.89±0.11 million}}[23][34] Smallest inhabited island;[35]
Kaua{{okina}}i Kaua{{okina}}i1410000|1.41 MYA}}[29]22|05|N|159|30|W|type:isle|display=inline}}19|K-Ar 5.1±0.2 million}}[23][36] Oldest and fourth largest of the main islands, and home to Mount Waialeale, one of the wettest areas on Earth in terms of precipitation[37]

Northwestern Hawaiian islands

Name Type Coordinates Age[38]Notes
Unnamed seamount Guyot22|42|N|161|02|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}07200000.1|5.1 to 7.2 million[72]}}40|m|ft}} below sea level
Nihoa Extinct Island23|03|N|161|55|W|region:US-HI_type:isle|display=inline}}07200000|K-Ar 7.2±0.3 million}}[23] Small rocky island which supported a small population around 1000 CE; features over 80 cultural sites, including religious places, agricultural terraces, and burial caves[39]
Unnamed seamount Guyot22|59|N|162|14|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}07200000.1|7.2 to 10.3 million[72]}}10|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamount Guyot23|14|N|162|37|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}07200000.1|7.2 to 10.3 million[72]}}229|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamount Guyot23|14|N|162|57|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}07200000.1|7.2 to 10.3 million[72]}}5|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamount Guyot23|12|N|163|10|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}07200000.1|7.2 to 10.3 million[72]}}44|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamount Guyot23|18|N|163|16|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}07200000.1|7.2 to 10.3 million[72]}}413|m|ft}} below sea level
Necker Island Extinct Island23|34|35|N|164|42|0|W|type:isle_region:US-HI|display=inline}}10300000|K-Ar 10.3±0.4 million}}[23] Small deserted island with Hawaiian religious shrines and artifacts[40]
French Frigate Shoals Atoll23.8689|N|166.2860|W|region:US-HI_type:isle|display=inline}}12000000|12 million}}[41] Largest atoll in the northwestern Hawaiian islands[42]
East Brooks Bank Guyot23|59|N|166|42|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}12000000.1|12 to 12.3 million[72]}}51|m|ft}} below sea level
Central Brooks Bank Guyot24|07|N|166|49|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}12000000.1|12 to 12.3 million[72]}}29|m|ft}} below sea level
West Brooks Bank Guyot24|12|N|166|57|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}12000000.1|12 to 12.3 million[72]}}24|m|ft}} below sea level
Saint Rogatien Bank Guyot24|19|N|167|08|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}12000000.1|12 to 12.3 million[72]}}20|m|ft}} below sea level
Gardner Pinnacles Atoll Island25|01|N|167|59|W|display=inline}}12300000|K-Ar 12.3±1.0 million}}[23] Two barren rock outcrops surrounded by a reef[43]
Unnamed seamount Guyot25|33|N|169|27|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|12.3 to 19.9 million[72]}}13|m|ft}} below sea level
Maro Reef Atoll25|25|N|170|35|W|source:eswiki|display=inline}}12300000.1|12.3 to 19.9 million[44]}} Largest coral reef of the northwestern Hawaiian islands[45]
Laysan Atoll Island25.7675|N|171.7334|W|display=inline}}19900000|K-Ar 19.9±0.3 million}}[23] Originally named "Kauō" meaning egg, referring to its shape, and home to one of only five natural lakes in all of Hawai{{okina}}i[46]
Unnamed seamount Guyot25|22|N|172|03|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}1|m|ft}} below sea level
Northampton Seamount Guyot25|30|N|172|24|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}6|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamount Guyot25|39|N|172|56|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}872|m|ft}} below sea level
Pioneer Tablemount Guyot25|59|N|173|24|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}5|m|ft}} below sea level
Lisianski Island Atoll Island26|3|48.6564|N|173|57|57.346|W|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}} A small island surrounded by a huge coral reef nearly the size of Oahu;[47] named after a captain in the Russian navy whose ship ran aground there in 1805[48]
Unnamed seamount Guyot26|18|N|174|32|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}67|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamounts Guyot26|56|N|175|36|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}115|m|ft}} and {{convert|1207|m|ft}} below sea level
Unnamed seamount Guyot27|09|N|176|10|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}1233|m|ft}} below sea level
Salmon Bank Guyot26|56|N|176|25|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}19900000.1|19.9 to 20.6 million[44]}}54|m|ft}} below sea level
Pearl and Hermes Atoll Atoll Island27|48|N|175|51|W|region:US-HI_type:isle_source:dewiki|display=inline}}20600000|K-Ar 20.6±2.7 million}}[23] A collection of small, sandy islands, with a lagoon and coral reef; named after two whaling ships which were wrecked on the reef in 1822[49]
Unnamed seamount Guyot28|05|N|176|54|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}20600000.1|20.6 to 27.7 million[44]}}1640|m|ft}} below sea level
Ladd Seamount Guyot28|31|45|N|176|40|00|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}20600000.1|20.6 to 27.7 million[44]}}64|m|ft}} below sea level
Midway Atoll Atoll Island28|12|N|177|21|W|type:isle_region:UM|display=inline}}27700000|K-Ar 27.7±0.6 million}}[23] Consists of a ring-shaped barrier reef and two large islets; named "Midway" because of its strategic location in the center of the Pacific Ocean, and was the site of a key battle during World War II[50]
Nero Seamount Guyot27|57|55|N|177|57|50|W|type:isle|display=inline}}27700000.1|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}}67|m|ft}} below sea level
Kure Atoll Atoll28|25|N|178|20|W|type:isle|display=inline}}27700000.1|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}} Northernmost coral atoll in the world[51]

Emperor seamounts

Name Type Summit Depth Coordinates[52] AgeNotes
East Windward Guyot124|m|ft}}28|54|N|178|37|W|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}}—}}
Academician Berg Guyot182|m|ft}}28|51|00|N|178|52|00|W|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}}—}}
West Windward Guyot254|m|ft}}28|49|50|N|179|07|50|W|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}}—}}
Helsley Guyot159|m|ft}}28|54|N|179|34|W|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}} Named after Charles Helsley, a researcher at the University of Hawaii. Also named Zapadnaya Seamount.
East Townsend Cromwell Seamount506|m|ft}}29|41|N|179|20|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}}—}}
Townsend Cromwell Seamount209|m|ft}}29|47|N|179|03|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}} Named after Townsend Cromwell, a prominent oceanographer.
Hancock Seamount298|m|ft}}30|15|N|178|50|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}}—}}
De Veuster Seamount474|m|ft}}30|22|30|N|177|34|00|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}01|27.7 to 38.7 million[44]}} possibly named after Father Damien (born Jozef De Veuster), a Roman Catholic Priest in Hawaii during the late 19th century.
Colahan Seamount232|m|ft}}31|15|N|176|0|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}02|K-Ar 38.7±0.2 million}}[53] Named after Empress Jingū, former ruler of Japan (~201-269)
Nintoku Guyot589|m|ft}}41|4.80|N|170|34.20|E|display=inline|type:mountain_region:US}}11|K-Ar 56.2±0.6 million}}[23] Named after Emperor Nintoku, former ruler of Japan (~313-399)
Ninigi Seamount1549|m|ft}}41|44|N|170|12|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}12|56.2 to 59.6 million[44]}} Named after Ninigi-no-Mikoto, a god in Japanese mythology.
Godaigo Seamount1560|m|ft}}41|51|N|170|33|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}12|56.2 to 59.6 million[44]}} Named after Emperor Go-Daigo, former ruler of Japan (1318-1339)
Yomei Guyot543|m|ft}}42|18|N|170|24|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}12|56.2 to 59.6 million[44]}} Named after Emperor Yōmei, former ruler of Japan (540-587)
Showa Guyot387|m|ft}}42|59|N|170|21|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}12|56.2 to 59.6 million[44]}} Named after Hirohito (Emperor Shōwa), former ruler of Japan (1926-1989)
Soga Guyot68|m|ft}}43|24|N|169|59|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}12|56.2 to 59.6 million[44]}} Named after Emperor Saga, former ruler of Japan (809-823)
Suiko Seamount995|m|ft}}44|35|N|170|20|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}13|K-Ar 59.6±0.6 (southern),[23][55] 64.7±1.1 (central),[23][55] and 60.9±0.3[53] million}} Named after Empress Suiko, former ruler of Japan (592-628)
Winnebago Guyot1680|m|ft}}48|10|N|168|20|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}14|60-81 million[44]}}
Tenji Guyot1599|m|ft}}48|50|N|168|30|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}14|60-81 million[44]}} Named after Emperor Tenji, former ruler of Japan (661-672)
Detroit Seamount1498|m|ft}}51|28.80|N|167|36|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}15|~ 81 million}}[4] Well-documented seamount, second-oldest. Rock from lava flows show that while Detroit Seamount was on the hotspot, activity coming from the volcano continued for the next 18 million years.
Meiji Seamount2720|m|ft}}53|12|N|164|30|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}16|85 million}}[4] Named after Emperor Meiji, former ruler of Japan (1867-1912); oldest known seamount in the chain

Notes

1. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1995/95_09_08.html|title=Evolution of Hawaiian Volcanoes|date=September 8, 1995|publisher=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (USGS)|accessdate=March 7, 2009}}
2. ^All of the islands in this part of the chain are administrated by Hawaii state, save for Midway Atoll, which is administrated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5083974.stm|title=Bush creates new marine sanctuary|author=Staff authors|date=June 15, 2006|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=December 14, 2009}}
4. ^1 2 {{cite journal|doi=10.1093/petrology/44.1.113|last=Regelous|first=M.|author2=Hofmann, A.W.|author3=Abouchami, W.|author4=Galer, S.J.G.|year=2003|title=Geochemistry of Lavas from the Emperor Seamounts, and the Geochemical Evolution of Hawaiian Magmatism from 85 to 42 Ma|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=44|issue=1|pages=113–140|url=http://www.gzn.uni-erlangen.de/fileadmin/data/kruste/mitarbeiter/Marcel/JPET2003.pdf|accessdate=July 23, 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719101930/http://www.gzn.uni-erlangen.de/fileadmin/data/kruste/mitarbeiter/Marcel/JPET2003.pdf|archivedate=July 19, 2011|df=|bibcode=2003JPet...44..113R}}
5. ^{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/08/0814_030814_hotspot.html |title=Hot Spot That Spawned Hawaii Was on the Move, Study Finds|author=John Roach|date=August 14, 2003|publisher=National Geographic News|accessdate=March 9, 2009}}
6. ^Sharp et al., 2006, Initiation of the bend near Kimmei seamount about 50 million years ago (MA) was coincident with realignment of Pacific spreading centers and early magmatism in western Pacific arcs, consistent with formation of the bend by changed Pacific plate motion.
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/Hawaii.html |title=The Emperor and Hawaiian Volcanic Chains: How well do they fit the plume hypothesis?|author1=G. R. Foulger |author2=Don L. Anderson |lastauthoramp=yes|publisher=MantlePlumes.org|accessdate=April 1, 2009}}
8. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal|author1=Michael O. Garcia |author2=Jackie Caplan-Auerbanch |author3=Eric H. De Carlo |author4=M.D. Kurz |author5=N. Becker | title = Geology, geochemistry and earthquake history of Lōʻihi Seamount, Hawaiʻi| version = This is the pre-press version of a paper that was published on 2006-05-16 as "Geochemistry, and Earthquake History of Lōʻihi Seamount, Hawaiʻi's youngest volcano", in Chemie der Erde – Geochemistry (66) 2:81–108 | publisher = University of Hawaii – School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology | date = September 20, 2005 | url =https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009281905000723| format = PDF | doi=10.1016/j.chemer.2005.09.002|bibcode = 2006ChEG...66...81G | volume=66 |issue=2 | journal=Chemie der Erde - Geochemistry | pages=81–108}} Pre-press version
9. ^{{Cite web|url=https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/hvo/hvo_volcano_watch.html?vwid=1394|title=Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|website=volcanoes.usgs.gov|access-date=2018-12-07}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/kilauea/ |title=Kīlauea – Perhaps the World's Most Active Volcano|date=May 7, 2009|publisher=United States Geological Survey – Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|accessdate=May 12, 2009}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/2002/02_03_21.html |title=Volcano Watch: The most active volcano on Earth? |date=March 12, 2002 |publisher=United States Geological Survey – Hawaiian Volcano Observatory |accessdate=December 11, 2011}}
12. ^{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2002/fs144-02/ |title=The Pu'u 'O'o-Kupaianaha Eruption of Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i, 1983 to 2003 |accessdate=June 7, 2009 |date=December 2, 2002 |publisher=United States Geological Survey }}
13. ^1 {{cite book|author=School Specialty Publishing |title=World Atlas |year=2006 |publisher=School Specialty Publishing |page=13 |isbn=0-7696-4260-8 |edition=Illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gt1DFukw42YC&lpg=PA13 |accessdate=December 13, 2009}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/ |title=Mauna Loa Earth's Largest Volcano |publisher=United States Geological Survey – Hawaiian Volcano Observatory |accessdate=July 3, 2009}}
15. ^1 2 {{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/hualalai/|title=Hualalai: Hawai`i's Third Active Volcano|date=18 June 2001|work=Other Volcanoes|publisher=USGS Hawaiian Volcano Observatory|accessdate=23 January 2010}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ |title=Mauna Kea Hawai`i's Tallest Volcano|publisher=United States Geological Survey|accessdate=May 14, 2009}}
17. ^{{cite web|url=http://geology.com/records/highest-mountain-in-the-world.shtml|author=Staff authors|title=Highest Mountain in the World|accessdate=July 4, 2009|publisher=Geology.com}}
18. ^1 2 3 4 {{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1089/Hawaii_expl_pamphlet.pdf |work=Geological Map of the State of Hawaii|author1=David R. Sherrod |author2=John M. Sinton |author3=Sarah E. Watkins |author4=Kelly M. Brunt |year=2007|title=USGS Open-File Report 2007–1089 (pamphlet to accompany geologic map)|publisher=United States Geological Survey|accessdate=April 12, 2009|format=PDF|pages=41–43}}
19. ^{{cite journal|title=Postshield stage transitional volcanism on Mahukona Volcano, Hawaii|last1=Clague|first1=David A.|last2= Calvert|first2=Andrew T.|year=2008|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|volume=71|issue=5|pages=553–559|doi=10.1007/s00445-008-0240-z|bibcode = 2008BVol..tmp...50C }}
20. ^The error estimate is given for two standard deviations (95% of data contained within this range). Each of the dates is an average of dates from each of two separate volcanic cones that are part of Māhukona.
21. ^{{cite book|author1=Clague, D.A. |author2=Moore, J.G. |lastauthoramp=yes|title=Geology and Petrology of Mahukona Volcano, Hawaii|publisher=Bulletin of Volcanology|year=1991|volume=53|pages=159–172}}
22. ^1 2 {{cite web|url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/haleakala/ |title=East Maui, or Haleakala—A Potentially Hazardous Volcano|date=February 2003|publisher=United States Geological Survey|accessdate=May 13, 2009}}
23. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 {{cite web |author=Rubin, Ken|url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/HCV/haw_formation.html |title=The Formation of the Hawaiian Islands |accessdate=May 18, 2009 |publisher=Hawaii Center for Vulcanology }}
24. ^{{cite web|url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_america/hawaii/kahoolawe.html|title=Kahoʻolawe, Hawaii|work=Photo Gallery of Kahoʻolawe island|publisher=Oregon State University|accessdate=April 4, 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090125150911/http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_america/hawaii/kahoolawe.html|archivedate=January 25, 2009|df=}}
25. ^{{cite web |url= |title=Block Group 9, Census Tract 303.02, Maui County, Hawaii |accessdate=May 17, 2009 |year=2000 |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau }}
26. ^{{cite web |url=http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/economic/databook/db2004/section05.pdf |title=The State of Hawaii Data Book 2004 |accessdate=May 17, 2009 |year=2004 |publisher=Hawaii.gov |format=PDF}}
27. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://www.mbari.org/volcanism/Hawaii/HR-Landslides.htm |title=Hawaiian Landslides |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=February 5, 2009 |publisher=Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute }}
28. ^{{cite journal|title=Penguin Bank: A Loa-Trend Hawaiian Volcano|publisher=American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2007, abstract #V33A-1174|bibcode=2007AGUFM.V33A1174X}}
29. ^1 These volcanos experienced a 'rejuvenation' phase significantly after their primary eruptions ended, for reasons unknown. Ko'olau originally erupted from 2.5-1.7 MYA, before entering into a dormancy period until roughly 500,000 years ago, and may possibly remain active. Kaua'i similarly erupted mainly 5 MYA, with a notably short period of secondary eruptions 1,430,000 to 1,410,000 years ago.
30. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/coasts/publications/hawaiiCoastline/oahu.html |title=Hawaii's Coastline – Oahu |accessdate=May 18, 2009 |publisher=University of Hawaii – School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology }}
31. ^1 2 {{cite web |url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanowatch/1995/95_09_29.html |title=O'ahu, Ni'ihau, and Kaua'i |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=September 29, 1995 |publisher=United States Geological Survey }}
32. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal | last1 = Sinton | first1 = John M. | last2 = Eason | first2 = Deborah E. | last3 = Tardona | first3 = Mary | last4 = Pyle | first4 = Douglas | last5 = Zander | first5 = Iris van der | last6 = Guillou | first6 = Hervé | last7 = Clague | first7 = David | last8 = Mahoney | first8 = John J. | title = Ka'ena Volcano—A precursor volcano of the island of O'ahu, Hawai'i | journal = Geological Society of America Bulletin | publisher = Geological Society of America | date = 2 May 2014 | doi = 10.1130/B30936.1 | volume=126 | issue = 9–10 | pages=1219–1244| bibcode = 2014GSAB..126.1219S }}
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaiioirc.org/OIRC-ISLETS-Niihau/OIRC-ISLETS-Niihau-Kaula.htm |title=Offshore Island Restoration Committee – Kaula |accessdate=June 11, 2009 |publisher=Offshore Island Restoration Committee |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106124735/http://www.hawaiioirc.org/OIRC-ISLETS-Niihau/OIRC-ISLETS-Niihau-Kaula.htm |archivedate=January 6, 2009 |df= }}
34. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/coasts/publications/hawaiiCoastline/niihau.html |title=Hawaii's Coastline – Niihau |accessdate=May 18, 2009 |publisher=University of Hawaii – School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology }}
35. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/pibhmc/pibhmc_mhi_nii.htm |title=Main Hawaiian Islands: Ni‘ihau |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date= |publisher=University of Hawaii – School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology }}
36. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/coasts/publications/hawaiiCoastline/kauai.html |title=Hawaii's Coastline – Kauai |accessdate=May 18, 2009 |publisher=University of Hawaii – School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology }}
37. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/pibhmc/pibhmc_mhi_kau.htm |title=Kaua‘i |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=June 17, 2008 |publisher=University of Hawaii – School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology }}
38. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/GG/HCV/haw_formation.html |title=The Formation of the Hawaiian Islands|publisher=Hawaii Center for Volcanology|accessdate=March 10, 2009}}
39. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/nihoa.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031219211841/http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/nihoa.php |dead-url=yes |archive-date=December 19, 2003 |title=Nihoa Island |accessdate=June 14, 2009 |publisher=Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project }}
40. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/mokumanamana.php |title=Necker Island (Mokumanamana) |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |publisher=Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618065801/http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/mokumanamana.php |archivedate=June 18, 2009 |df= }}
41. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/mdyar/ast106/earth_hw_a.html |title=Hotspots and Plate Motion|author=Darby Dyar|publisher=Mount Holyoke College|date=April 22, 2008|accessdate=April 4, 2009}}
42. ^{{cite web |url=http://hawaiireef.noaa.gov/imagery/pdfs/french.pdf |format=PDF |title=French Frigate Shoals Reserve Preservation Area |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date= |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506142836/http://www.hawaiireef.noaa.gov/imagery/pdfs/french.pdf |archivedate=May 6, 2009 |df= }}
43. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/episodes/kure/diaries/gardner.html|title=Voyage to Kure: The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Gardner Pinnacles|date=22 March 2006|publisher=PBS|accessdate=1 May 2010}}
44. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 The age of the volcano is unknown, but will be somewhere between the ages of the volcanoes on either side of it in the chain.
45. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/maro.php |title=Maro Reef (Ko'anako'a) |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date= |publisher=Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618144738/http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/maro.php |archivedate=June 18, 2009 |df= }}
46. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/episodes/kure/diaries/laysan.html |title=Laysan Island |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=March 22, 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System – KQED }}
47. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/lisianski.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040318125240/http://www.hawaiianatolls.org/about/lisianski.php |dead-url=yes |archive-date=March 18, 2004 |title=Lisianski Island |accessdate=June 14, 2009 |date= |publisher=Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Multi-Agency Education Project }}
48. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/episodes/kure/diaries/lisianski.html |title=Lisanski Island |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=March 22, 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System – KQED }}
49. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/episodes/kure/diaries/pearlandhermes.html |title=Pearl and Hermes Atoll |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=March 22, 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System – KQED }}
50. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/episodes/kure/diaries/midway.html |title=Midway Atoll |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=March 22, 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System – KQED }}
51. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/episodes/kure/diaries/kure.html |title=Kure Atoll |accessdate=June 13, 2009 |date=March 22, 2006 |publisher=Public Broadcasting System – KQED }}
52. ^{{cite web|url=http://earthref.org/databases/SC/|title=Seamount Catalog|work=Seamounts database|publisher=EarthRef, a National Science Foundation project|accessdate=April 10, 2009}}
53. ^1 2 {{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.1128489|title=50-Ma Initiation of Hawaiian-Emperor Bend Records Major Change in Pacific Plate Motion|first2=DA|year=2006|last2=Clague|last1=Sharp|first1=W. D.|journal=Science|volume=313|issue=5791|pages=1281–84|ref=Sharp|pmid=16946069|bibcode = 2006Sci...313.1281S }}
54. ^1 2 The error estimate is given for 2 standard deviations (95% of data contained within this range). -->| {{center|—}}|-| Abbott| Seamount| {{convert|1680|m|ft}}| {{coord|31|48|N|174|18|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}| {{sort|03|K-Ar 41.5±0.3 million}}| {{center|—}}|-| Daikakuji| Guyot| {{convert|1050|m|ft}}| {{coord|32|5.00|N|172|18|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}| {{sort|04|K-Ar 42.4±2.3 and 46.7±0.1 million}}| Also the name of a Japanese temple|-| Kammu| Guyot| {{convert|319|m|ft}}| {{coord|32|10|N|173|0|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}| {{sort|05|42.4 to 43.4 million}}| Named after Emperor Kammu, former ruler of Japan (781-806)|-| Yuryaku| Guyot| {{convert|492|m|ft}}| {{coord|32|40.20|N|172|16.20|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|06|K-Ar 43.4±1.6 million}}| Named after Emperor Yūryaku, former ruler of Japan (~456-479)|-| Goshirakawa| Guyot| {{convert|3203|m|ft}}| {{coord|32|39|N|171|34|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|07|~40 million}}| Named after Emperor Go-Shirakawa, former ruler of Japan (1155-1158)|-| Gosanjo| Guyot| {{convert|2620|m|ft}}| {{coord|32|54|N|171|34|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|07|~40 million}}| Named after Emperor Go-Sanjō, former ruler of Japan (1068-1073)|-| Toba| Guyot| {{convert|963|m|ft}}| {{coord|33|14|N|171|39|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|07|~40 million}}| Named after Emperor Toba, former ruler of Japan (1107-1123)|-| Genji| Seamount| {{convert|2550|m|ft}}| {{coord|33|20|N|172|14|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|07|~40 million}}| Named after Hikaru Genji, the protagonist of the classic Japanese work, The Tale of Genji.|-| Kimmei| Seamount| {{convert|222|m|ft}}| {{coord|33|40.84|N|171|38.07|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}| {{sort|07|K-Ar 39.9±1.2 and 47.9±0.2 million}}| Named after Emperor Kimmei, former ruler of Japan (539-571)|-| Unnamed Seamount| Seamount| {{convert|82|m|ft}}| {{coord|34|57|00|N|171|35|40|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|08|same as Koko Guyot}}|-| Koko| Guyot| {{convert|247|m|ft}}| {{coord|35|15.00|N|171|35.00|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|08|K-Ar 48.1±0.8, 50.4±0.1 (south side), and 52.6±0.8 (north side) million}}| Named after Emperor Kōkō, former ruler of Japan (884-887)|-| Unnamed Guyot| Guyot| {{convert|84|m|ft}}| {{coord|36|47|45|N|171|21|50|E|display=inline}}| {{sort|80|48.1 to 55.2 million}}| |-| Ojin| Guyot| {{convert|197|m|ft}}| {{coord|37|58.20|N|170|22.80|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}| {{sort|09|K-Ar 55.2±0.7 million}}| Named after Emperor Ōjin, former ruler of Japan (~270-310)|-| Jingu| Guyot| {{convert|588|m|ft}}| {{coord|38|50|N|171|15|E|type:mountain_region:US|display=inline}}| {{sort|10|K-Ar 55.4±0.9 million}}{{cite web|url=http://earthref.org/cgi-bin/er.cgi?s=err.cgi?n=2398|title=Age and chemistry of volcanic rocks dredged from Jingu Seamount, Emperor seamount chain|author=Dalrymple, G.B., Garcia, M.O., Jackson, E.D., Koizumi, I., Avdeiko, G., Butt, A., Clague, D., Greene, H.G., Karpoff, A.M., Kirkpatrick, R.J., Kono, M., Hsin Yi, L., McKenzie, J., Morgan, J. and Takayama, T.|year=1980|work=Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project 55: 685–693|accessdate=April 4, 2009}}
55. ^1 Clague, D. A. and Dalrymple, G. B. (1989) Tectonics, geochronology, and origin of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611080721/http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/Faculty/Morden/BotZool450/Clague1989.pdf |date=2011-06-11 }} in Winterer, E. L. et al. (editors) (1989) The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii, Boulder, Geological Society of America, page 199. Accessed July 23, 2010

References

{{Reflist|30em}}

External links

  • This abstract contains preliminary data for several of the seamount dates; these dates are revised in the subsequent paper (as reported above):
    • {{cite journal|last=Sharp|first=W.D.|author2=Clague, D.A.|year=2002|title=An Older, Slower Hawaii-Emperor Bend|journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|volume=61|publisher=American Geophysical Union|location=San Francisco, CA|pages=T61C–04|bibcode=2002AGUFM.T61C..04S}}
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8 : Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain|Lists of volcanoes|Submarine volcanoes|Volcanoes of Hawaii|Volcanoes of Oceania|Volcanoes of the Pacific Ocean|Cretaceous volcanoes|Cenozoic volcanoes
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