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词条 Languages of Europe
释义

  1. Indo-European languages

      Slavic    Romance    Germanic    Other  

  2. Non-Indo-European languages

      Uralic    Turkic    Other  

  3. History of standardization

      Language and identity, standardization processes    Lingua franca    Linguistic minorities    Scripts    European Union  

  4. List of languages

  5. Immigrant communities

  6. See also

  7. Notes

  8. References

  9. External links

{{About||the ethnography of Europe|Peoples of Europe|the populations of Europe by country and the population overall|Demographics of Europe}}{{See also|Languages of the European Union|List of extinct languages of Europe|List of endangered languages in Europe}}

Most languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family.

Out of a total population of 744 million (as of 2018), some 94% are native speakers of an Indo-European language;

within Indo-European, the three largest phyla are Slavic, Romance and Germanic, with more than 200 million speakers each, between them accounting for close to 90% of Europeans. Smaller phyla of Indo-European found in Europe include Hellenic (Greek, c. 10 million), Baltic (c. 7 million), Albanian (c. 5 million), Indo-Aryan (Romani, c. 1.5 million) and Celtic (including Welsh, c. 1 million).

Of c. 45 million Europeans speaking non-Indo-European languages, around 20 million each fall within the Uralic and Turkic families. Still smaller groups (such as Basque and various languages of the Caucasus) account for less than 1% of European population between them. Immigration has added sizeable communities of speakers of African and Asian languages, amounting to about 4% of the population,[1] with Arabic being the most widely spoken of them.

Five languages have more than 50 million native speakers in Europe: Russian, German, French, Italian and English. While Russian has the largest number of native speakers (more than 100 million in Europe), English in Europe has the largest number of speakers in total, including some 200 million speakers of English as a second language.

Indo-European languages

{{See also|List of Indo-European languages}}

The Indo-European language family is descended from Proto-Indo-European, which is believed to have been spoken thousands of years ago. Early speakers of Indo-European daughter languages most likely expanded into Europe with the incipient Bronze Age, around 4,000 years ago (Bell-Beaker culture).

Slavic

{{See also|Slavic languages|Slavs}}

Slavic languages are spoken in large areas of Central Europe, Southern Europe and Eastern Europe. An estimated 250 million Europeans are native speakers of Slavic languages, the largest groups being

Russian (c. 110 million in European Russia and adjacent parts of Eastern Europe, Russian forming the largest linguistic community in Europe),

Polish (c. 55 million),

Ukrainian (c. 40 million),

Serbo-Croatian (c. 21 million),

Czech (c. 11 million),

Bulgarian (c. 9 million),

Slovak (c. 5 million)

Belarusian and Slovene (c. 3 million each)

and Macedonian (c. 2 million).

Phylogenetically, Slavic is divided into three subgroups:

  • West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lower Sorbian, Upper Sorbian and Kashubian.
  • East Slavic includes Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn.
  • South Slavic is divided into Southeast Slavic and Southwest Slavic groups: Southwest Slavic languages include Serbo-Croatian and Slovene, each with numerous distinctive dialects. Serbo-Croatian boasts four distinct national standards, Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin and Serbian, all based on the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect; Southeast Slavic languages include Bulgarian, Macedonian and Old Church Slavonic (a liturgical language).

Romance

{{see|Romance languages|Italic languages}}

Roughly 215 million Europeans (primarily in Southern and Western Europe) are native speakers of Romance languages, the largest groups including

French (c. 69 million),

Italian (c. 65 million),

Spanish (Castilian) (c. 40 million),

Romanian (c. 23 million),

Portuguese (c. 10 million),

Sicilian (c. 5 million, also subsumed under Italian),

Catalan (c. 4 million),

Galician (c. 2 million),

Sardinian (c. 1 million),

Occitan (c. 500,000),

besides numerous smaller communities.

The Romance languages are descended from varieties of Vulgar Latin spoken in the various parts of the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity. Latin was itself part of the (otherwise extinct) Italic branch of Indo-European.

Romance is divided phylogenetically into Italo-Western, Eastern Romance (including Romanian) and Sardinian. The Romance-speaking area in Europe is often referred to as Latin Europe.[2]

We can further break down Italo-Western into the Italo-Dalmatian languages (sometimes grouped with Eastern Romance), including the Tuscan-derived Italian and numerous local Romance lects in Italy as well as Dalmatian, and the Western Romance languages. The Western Romance languages in turn separate into the Gallo-Romance languages, including French and its varieties (Langues d'oïl), the Rhaeto-Romance languages and the Gallo-Italic languages; the Occitano-Romance languages (East Iberian), grouped with either Gallo-Romance or West Iberian, including Occitan, Catalan and Aragonese; and finally the West Iberian languages (Spanish-Portuguese), including the Astur-Leonese languages, Galician-Portuguese and Castilian.

Germanic

{{see|Germanic-speaking Europe}}

The Germanic languages make up the predominant language family in northwestern Europe.

An estimated 210 million Europeans are native speakers of Germanic languages, the largest groups being German (c. 95 million), English (c. 70 million) and Dutch (c. 24 million), Swedish (c. 10 million), Danish (c. 6 million) and Norwegian (c. 5 million).

There are two extant major sub-divisions: West Germanic and North Germanic. A third group, East Germanic, is now extinct; the only known surviving East Germanic texts are written in the Gothic language.

West Germanic is divided into Anglo-Frisian (including English), Low German and Low Franconian (including Dutch) and High German (including Standard German).

German and Low Franconian
{{Main|German language|German-speaking Europe|Low Franconian|Dutch-speaking Europe}}

German is spoken throughout Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the East Cantons of Belgium, much of Switzerland (including the northeast areas bordering on Germany and Austria) and northern Italy (South Tyrol).

There are several groups of German dialects:

  • High German include several dialect families:
    • Standard German
    • Central German dialects, spoken in central Germany and include Luxembourgish
    • High Franconian, a family of transitional dialects between Central and Upper High German
    • Upper German, including Austro-Bavarian and Swiss German
    • Yiddish is a Jewish language developed in Germany and shares many features of High German dialects and Hebrew.

Low German (including Low Saxon) is spoken in various regions throughout Northern Germany and the North and East of the Netherlands. It is an official language in Germany.

It may be separated into Low Saxon (West Low German) and East Low German.

Dutch is spoken throughout the Netherlands, northern Belgium, as well as the Nord-Pas de Calais region of France, and around Düsseldorf in Germany. In Belgian and French contexts, Dutch is sometimes referred to as Flemish. Dutch dialects are varied and cut across national borders.

Anglo-Frisian
{{Main|Anglo-Frisian languages|English-speaking Europe}}

The Anglo-Frisian language family is now mostly represented by English (Anglic), descended from the Old English language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons:

  • English, the main language of the United Kingdom, also used in English-speaking Europe
  • Scots, spoken in Scotland and Ulster.

The Frisian languages are spoken by about 500,000 Frisians, who live on the southern coast of the North Sea in the Netherlands and Germany. These languages include West Frisian, Saterlandic, and North Frisian.

North Germanic (Scandinavian)

The North Germanic languages are spoken in Scandinavian countries and include Danish (Denmark), Norwegian (Norway), Swedish (Sweden and parts of Finland), or Elfdalian (in a small part of central Sweden), Faroese (Faroe Islands), and Icelandic (Iceland).

English has a long history of contact with Scandinavian languages, given the immigration of Scandinavians early in the history of Britain, and has similar structure with Scandinavian languages.[3]

Other

  • Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus, and there are Greek-speaking enclaves in Albania, Bulgaria, Italy, North Macedonia, Romania, Georgia, Ukraine, Lebanon, Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Turkey, and in Greek communities around the world. Dialects of modern Greek that originate from Attic Greek (through Koine and then Medieval Greek) are Cappadocian, Pontic, Cretan, Cypriot, Katharevousa, and Yevanic
    • Italiot Greek is, debatably, a Doric dialect of Greek. It is spoken in southern Italy only, in the southern Calabria region (as Grecanic)[4][5][6][7][8] and in the Salento region (as Griko). It has been studied by the German linguist Gerhard Rohlfs during 1930s and 1950s.
    • Tsakonian is a Doric dialect of the Greek language spoken in the lower Arcadia region of the Peloponnese around the village of Leonidio
  • The Baltic languages are spoken in Lithuania (Lithuanian, Samogitian) and Latvia (Latvian, Latgalian). Samogitian and Latgalian are usually considered to be dialects of Lithuanian and Latvian respectively.
    • There are also several extinct Baltic languages, including: Galindian, Curonian, Old Prussian, Selonian, Semigallian and Sudovian.
  • Albanian has two major dialects, Tosk Albanian and Gheg Albanian. It is spoken in Albania and Kosovo, neighboring North Macedonia, Serbia, Greece, Italy and Montenegro. It is also widely spoken in the Albanian diaspora.
  • There are six living Celtic languages, spoken in areas of northwestern Europe dubbed the "Celtic nations". All six are members of the Insular Celtic family, which in turn is divided into:
    • Brythonic family: Welsh (Wales), Cornish (Cornwall) and Breton (Brittany)
    • Goidelic family: Irish (Ireland), Scottish Gaelic (Scotland), and Manx (Isle of Man)
    • Continental Celtic languages had previously been spoken across Europe from Iberia and Gaul to Asia Minor, but became extinct in the first millennium AD.
  • The Indo-Aryan languages have one major representation, it being Romani (c. 1.5 million speakers), introduced to Europe in the late medieval period.
  • The Iranian languages in Europe are natively represented in the North Caucasus, notably with Ossetian.
  • Armenian speakers came to Russia in significant numbers after the First World War due to Armenian genocide and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (see below).

Non-Indo-European languages

Uralic

{{Main|Uralic languages}}

Uralic is native to northern Eurasia. Finno-Ugric groups the Uralic languages other than Samoyedic.

Finnic languages include Finnish and Estonian. The Sami languages are closely related to Finnic.

The Ugric languages are represented in Europe with the Hungarian language, historically introduced with the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin of the 9th century.

The Samoyedic Nenets language is spoken in Nenets Autonomous Okrug in the far northeastern corner of Europe (as delimited by the Ural Mountains).

Turkic

{{Main|Turkic languages}}
  • Oghuz languages in Europe include Turkish, spoken in European Turkey and by immigrant communities; Azerbaijani is spoken in Azerbaijan and parts of Southern Russia and Gagauz is spoken in Gagauzia.
  • Kypchak languages in Europe include Crimean Tatar, which is spoken in Crimea; Tatar, which is spoken in Tatarstan; Bashkir, which is spoken in Bashkortostan; and Kazakh, which is spoken in Kazakhstan.
  • Oghur languages were historically indigenous to much of Eastern Europe; however, most of them are extinct today, with the exception of Chuvash, which is spoken in Chuvashia.

Other

  • The Basque language (or Euskara) is a language isolate and the ancestral language of the Basque people who inhabit the Basque Country, a region in the western Pyrenees mountains mostly in northeastern Spain and partly in southwestern France of about 3 million inhabitants, where it is spoken fluently by about 750,000 and understood by more than 1.5 million people. Basque is directly related to ancient Aquitanian, and it is likely that an early form of the Basque language was present in Western Europe before the arrival of the Indo-European languages in the area in the Bronze Age.
  • North Caucasian languages is a geographical blanket term for two unrelated language families spoken chiefly in the north Caucasus and Turkey—the Northwest Caucasian family (including Abkhaz and Circassian) and the Northeast Caucasian family, spoken mainly in the border area of the southern Russian Federation (including Dagestan, Chechnya, and Ingushetia).
  • Kalmyk is a Mongolic language, spoken in the Republic of Kalmykia, part of the Russian Federation. Its speakers entered the Volga region in the early 17th century.
  • Maltese is a Semitic language with Romance and Germanic influences, spoken in Malta.[9][10][11][12] It is based on Sicilian Arabic, with influences from Italian (particularly Sicilian), French, and, more recently, English. It is unique in that it is the only Semitic language whose standard form is written in the Latin script. It is also the smallest official language of the EU in terms of speakers, and the only official Semitic language within the EU. Cypriot Maronite Arabic (also known as Cypriot Arabic) is a variety of Arabic spoken by Maronites in Cyprus. Most speakers live in Nicosia, but others are in the communities of Kormakiti and Lemesos. Brought to the island by Maronites fleeing Lebanon over 700 years ago, this variety of Arabic has been influenced by Greek in both phonology and vocabulary, while retaining certain unusually archaic features in other respects.

History of standardization

{{see|Ethnic groups in Europe#History|Vernacular|De vulgari eloquentia}}

Language and identity, standardization processes

In the Middle Ages the two most important defining elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas. Thus language—at least the supranational language—played an elementary role{{Clarify|date=July 2010}}.

The earliest dictionaries were glossaries, i.e., more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans was among the first. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest in standardizing languages).

The concept of the nation state begins to emerge in the early modern period. Nations adopted particular dialects as their national language. This, together with improved communications, led to official efforts to standardise the national language, and a number of language academies were established (e.g., 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft in Weimar, 1635 Académie française in Paris, 1713 Real Academia Española in Madrid). Language became increasingly linked to nation as opposed to culture, and was also used to promote religious and ethnic identity (e.g., different Bible translations in the same language for Catholics and Protestants).

The first languages for which standardisation was promoted included Italian (questione della lingua: Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian → Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (the standard is based on Parisian), English (the standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on the dialects of the chancellery of Meissen in Saxony, Middle German, and the chancellery of Prague in Bohemia ("Common German")). But several other nations also began to develop a standard variety in the 16th century.

Lingua franca

Europe has had a number of languages that were considered linguae francae over some ranges for some periods according to some historians. Typically in the rise of a national language the new language becomes a lingua franca to peoples in the range of the future nation until the consolidation and unification phases. If the nation becomes internationally influential, its language may become a lingua franca among nations that speak their own national languages. Europe has had no lingua franca ranging over its entire territory spoken by all or most of its populations during any historical period. Some linguae francae of past and present over some of its regions for some of its populations are:

  • Classical Greek and then Koine Greek in the Mediterranean Basin from the Athenian empire to the eastern Roman Empire, being replaced by Modern Greek.
  • Koine Greek and Modern Greek, in the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire and other parts of the Balkans south of the Jireček Line.[13]
  • Vulgar Latin and Late Latin among the uneducated and educated populations respectively of the Roman empire and the states that followed it in the same range no later than 900 AD; medieval Latin and Renaissance Latin among the educated populations of western, northern, central and part of eastern Europe until the rise of the national languages in that range, beginning with the first language academy in Italy in 1582/83; new Latin written only in scholarly and scientific contexts by a small minority of the educated population at scattered locations over all of Europe; ecclesiastical Latin, in spoken and written contexts of liturgy and church administration only, over the range of the Roman Catholic Church.
  • Lingua Franca or Sabir, the original of the name, an Italian-based pidgin language of mixed origins used by maritime commercial interests around the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages and early Modern Age.[14]
  • Old French in continental western European countries and in the Crusader states.[15]
  • Czech, mainly during the reign of Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV (14th century) but also during other periods of Bohemian control over the Holy Roman Empire.
  • Middle Low German (14th–16th century, during the heyday of the Hanseatic League).
  • Spanish as Castilian in Spain and New Spain from the times of the Catholic Monarchs and Columbus, c. 1492; that is, after the Reconquista, until established as a national language in the times of Louis XIV, c. 1648; subsequently multinational in all nations in or formerly in the Spanish Empire.[16]
  • Polish, due to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (16th–18th centuries).
  • Italian due to the Renaissance, the opera, the Italian empire, the fashion industry and the influence of the Roman catholic church.[17]
  • French from the golden age under Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV c. 1648; i.e., after the Thirty Years' War, in France and the French colonial empire, until established as the national language during the French Revolution of 1789 and subsequently multinational in all nations in or formerly in the various French Empires.[15]
  • German in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe.[18]
  • English in Great Britain until its consolidation as a national language in the Renaissance and the rise of Modern English; subsequently internationally under the various states in or formerly in the British Empire; globally since the victories of the predominantly English speaking countries (United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and others) and their allies in the two world wars ending in 1918 (World War I) and 1945 (World War II) and the subsequent rise of the United States as a superpower and major cultural influence.
  • Russian in the former Soviet Union and Russian Empire including Northern and Central Asia.

Linguistic minorities

Historical attitudes towards linguistic diversity are illustrated by two French laws: the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which said that every document in France should be written in French (neither in Latin nor in Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aimed to eliminate anglicisms from official documents. States and populations within a state have often resorted to war to settle their differences. There have been attempts to prevent such hostilities: two such initiatives were promoted by the Council of Europe, founded in 1949, which affirms the right of minority language speakers to use their language fully and freely.[19] The Council of Europe is committed to protecting linguistic diversity. Currently all European countries except France, Andorra and Turkey have signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, while Greece, Iceland and Luxembourg have signed it, but have not ratified it; this framework entered into force in 1998. Another European treaty, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, was adopted in 1992 under the auspices of the Council of Europe: it entered into force in 1998, and while it is legally binding for 24 countries, France, Iceland, Italy, North Macedonia, Moldova and Russia have chosen to sign without ratifying the convention.

Scripts

The main scripts used in Europe today are the Latin and Cyrillic.

The Greek alphabet was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, and Latin was derived from the Greek via the Old Italic alphabet. In the Early Middle Ages, Ogham was used in Ireland and runes (derived the Old Italic script) in Scandinavia. Both were replaced in general use by the Latin alphabet by the Late Middle Ages. The Cyrillic script was derived from the Greek with the first texts appearing around 940 AD.

{{See also|Antiqua–Fraktur dispute}}

Around 1900 there were mainly two typeface variants of the Latin alphabet used in Europe: Antiqua and Fraktur. Fraktur was used most for German, Estonian, Latvian, Norwegian and Danish whereas Antiqua was used for Italian, Spanish, French, Polish, Portuguese, English, Romanian, Swedish and Finnish. The Fraktur variant was banned by Hitler in 1941, having been described as "Schwabacher Jewish letters".[20] Other scripts have historically been in use in Europe, including Phoenician, from which modern Latin letters descend, Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs on Egyptian artefacts traded during Antiquity various runic systems used in Northern Europe preceding Christianisation, and Arabic during the era of the Ottoman Empire.

Hungarian rovás was used by the Hungarian people in the early Middle Ages, but it was gradually replaced with the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet when Hungary became a kingdom, though it was revived in the 20th century and has certain marginal, but growing area of usage since then.

European Union

{{main|Languages of the European Union}}

The European Union (as of 2016) had 28 member states accounting for a population of 510 million, or about 69% of the population of Europe.

The European Union has designated by agreement with the member states 24 languages as "official and working:" Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Irish, Italian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish and Swedish.[21] This designation provides member states with two "entitlements:" the member state may communicate with the EU in the designated one of those languages and view "EU regulations and other legislative documents" in that language.[22]

The European Union and the Council of Europe have been collaborating in education of member populations in languages for "the promotion of plurilingualism" among EU member states,[23] The joint document, "Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR)", is an educational standard defining "the competencies necessary for communication" and related knowledge for the benefit of educators in setting up educational programs.

In a 2005 independent survey requested by the EU's Directorate-General for Education and Culture regarding the extent to which major European languages were spoken in member states. The results were published in a 2006 document, "Europeans and Their Languages", or "Eurobarometer 243". In this study, statistically relevant samples of the population in each country were asked to fill out a survey form concerning the languages that they spoke with sufficient competency "to be able to have a conversation".[24]

List of languages

{{see|List of endangered languages in Europe|List of extinct languages of Europe|List of languages of Russia}}

The following is a table of European languages. The number of speakers as a first or second language (L1 and L2 speakers) listed are speakers in Europe only;{{refn|"Europe" is taken as a geographical term, defined by the conventional Europe-Asia boundary along the Caucasus and the Urals. Estimates for populations geographically in Europe are given for transcontinental countries.|group=nb}} see list of languages by number of native speakers and list of languages by total number of speakers for global estimates on numbers of speakers.

The list includes any language or dialect with an ISO 639 code; this means that some communities of speakers within a macrolanguage may be listed more than once, e.g. speakers of Austro-Bavarian listed both separately (under bar) and subsumed in the total given under "German" (de).

Name ISO-639 ClassificationL1 speakers
(in Europe)		L1+L2 speakers
(in Europe)		Sovereign states, defined as United Nations member states and observer states. 'Recognised minority language' status is not included.|group=nbOfficial status (regional)
Abkhaz ab Northwest Caucasian, Abazgi 113,000[25] {{flag>Abkhazia}}
Adyghe ady Northwest Caucasian, Circassian 117,500[26] Adygea}} (Russia)
Albanian sq Indo-European 5,400,000[27] Albania}}, {{flag|Kosovo}}{{refn|The Republic of Kosovo is a partially recognized state (recognized by 111 out of 193 UN member states as of 2017).|group=nb|name=Kosovo}}, {{flag|North Macedonia}}
Aragonese an Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 25,000[28] 55,000[29]Aragon}} (Spain){{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}}
Arbëresh aae Indo-European, Albanian, Tosk 100,000 native speakers in 2007[30] 400,000[31][32][33][34] Sicily}}, {{flag|Calabria}},[35] {{flag|Apulia}}, {{flag|Molise}}, {{flag|Basilicata}}, {{flag|Abruzzo}}, {{flag|Campania}}, (Italy)
Aromanian rup Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 114,000[36] North Macedonia}}
Asturian (Astur-Leonese) ast Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 351,791[37] 641,502[37] Asturias}}{{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}}
Austro-Bavarianbar Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Bavarian 14,000,000[38]Austria}} (as German)
Avar av Northeast Caucasian, Avar–Andic 760,000 Dagestan}} (Russia)
Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz 500,000[39] Azerbaijan}}Dagestan}} (Russia)
Bashkir ba Turkic, Kipchak 1,221,000[40]Bashkortostan}} (Russia)
Basque eu Basque 750,000[41] Basque Autonomous Community (Spain, official), Navarre (Spain, official in the northern part of the region), French Basque Country (France, not official)
Belarusian be Indo-European, Slavic, East 3,300,000[42] Belarus}}
Bosnian bs Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 2,500,000[43] Bosnia and Herzegovina}}{{flag>Kosovo}}{{refn|The Republic of Kosovo is a partially recognized state (recognized by 111 out of 193 UN member states as of 2017).|group=nb|name=Kosovo}}, {{flag|Montenegro}}
Breton br Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 206,000[44]Brittany}} (France))
Bulgarian bg Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern 7,800,000[45] Bulgaria}}
Catalan ca Indo-European, Romance, Western, Occitano-Romance 4,000,000[46] 10,000,000[47] Andorra}}Balearic Islands}} (Spain), {{flag|Catalonia}} (Spain), {{flag|Valencian Community}} (Spain), {{flag|Aragon}} (Spain){{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}}, Pyrénées-Orientales (France){{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}}, Alghero (Italy)
Chechen ce Northeast Caucasian, Nakh 1,400,000[48]Chechnya}} & {{flag|Dagestan}} (Russia)
Chuvash cv Turkic, Oghur 1,100,000[49] Chuvashia}} (Russia)
Cimbriancim Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Bavarian 400[50]
Cornish kw Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 557[51] Cornwall}} (United Kingdom)
Corsican co Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 30,000[52] 125,000[52] Corsica}} (France), {{flag|Sardinia}} (Italy)
Crimean Tatar crh Turkic, Kipchak 480,000[53] Crimea}}
Croatian hr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 5,600,000[54]Bosnia and Herzegovina}}, {{flag|Croatia}}Burgenland}} (Austria)
Czech cs Indo-European, Slavic, West, Czech–Slovak 10,600,000[55] Czech Republic}}
Danish da Indo-European, Germanic, North 5,500,000[56]Denmark}}Faroe Islands}} (Denmark), {{flag|Schleswig-Holstein}} (Germany)[57]
Dutch nl Indo-European, Germanic, West 22,000,000[58] Belgium}}, {{flag|Netherlands}}
English en Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian, Anglic 60,000,000[59] 260,000,000[60] Ireland}}, {{flag|Malta}}, {{flag|United Kingdom}}
Erzya myv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Mordvinic 120,000[61]Mordovia}} (Russia)
Estonian et Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1,165,400[62]Estonia}}
Extremaduran ext Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 200,000[63]Extremadura}} (Spain)
Faroese fo Indo-European, Germanic, North 66,150[64] Faroe Islands}} (Denmark)
Finnish fi Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 5,400,000[65]Finland}}
Franco-Provençal (Arpitan) arp Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance 140,000[66] Aosta Valley}} (Italy)
French fr Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 66,000,000[67] 135,000,000[60] Belgium}}, {{flag|France}}, {{flag|Luxembourg}}, {{flag|Monaco}}, {{flag|Switzerland}}Aosta Valley}}[68] (Italy), {{flag|Jersey}} (United Kingdom), El Pas de la Casa, (Andorra)
Frisian fry frr stq Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian 470,000[69]Friesland}} (Netherlands), {{flag|Schleswig-Holstein}} (Germany)[70]
Gagauz gag Turkic, Oghuz 140,000[71]Gagauzia}} (Moldova)
Galician gl Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 2,400,000[72] Galicia}} (Spain), Eo-Navia (Asturias){{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}}, Bierzo (Province of León){{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}} and Western Sanabria (Province of Zamora){{refn|Recognized and protected, but not official.|group=nb|name=Not Official}}
German de Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 97,000,000[73] 170,000,000[60] Austria}}, {{flag|Belgium}}, {{flag|Germany}}, {{flag|Liechtenstein}}, {{flag|Luxembourg}}, {{flag|Switzerland}}South Tyrol}}[74] (Italy)
Greek el Indo-European, Hellenic 11,000,000[75]Cyprus}}, {{flag|Greece}}
Hungarian hu Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Ugric 13,000,000[76] Hungary}}Burgenland}} (Austria), {{flag|Vojvodina}} (Serbia), Romania
Icelandic is Indo-European, Germanic, North 330,000[77] Iceland}}
Ingrian izh Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 120[78]Ingria}} (Russia)
Ingush inh Northeast Caucasian, Nakh 300,000[79]Ingushetia}} (Russia)
Irish ga Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 240,000[80] 1,300,000 Republic of Ireland}}Northern Ireland}} (United Kingdom)
Istriot ist Indo-European, Romance 900[81]Croatia}}
Istro-Romanian ruo Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 1,100[82]Croatia}}
Italian it Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 65,000,000[83] 82,000,000[60] Italy}}, {{flag|San Marino}}, {{flag|Switzerland}}, {{flag|Vatican City}}Croatia}} Istria County (Croatia), {{flagicon|Slovenia}} Slovenian Istria (Slovenia)
Italiot Greek mis Indo-European, Hellenic, Greek, Attic-Ionic20,000 Native speakers in 1981[84] 50,000 Calabria}}[85] (Bovesia), {{flag|Apulia}}[86] (Salento), (Italy)
Judeo-Italian itk Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 250[87]Italy}}, {{flag|Corfu}} (Greece)
Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino) lad Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 320,000[88] few[89]Bosnia and Herzegovina}}, {{flag|France}}, {{flag|Turkey}}
Kabardian kbd Northwest Caucasian, Circassian 530,000[90]Kabardino-Balkaria}} & {{flag|Karachay-Cherkessia}} (Russia)
Kalmyk xal Mongolic 80,500[91]Kalmykia}} (Russia)
Karelian krl Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 36,000[92]Karelia}} (Russia)
Karachay-Balkar krc Turkic, Kipchak 300,000[93]Kabardino-Balkaria}} & {{flag|Karachay-Cherkessia}} (Russia)
Kashubian csb Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 50,000[94]Poland}}
Kazakh kk Turkic, Kipchak 1,000,000[95] Kazakhstan}}
Komi kv Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Permic 220,000[96] Komi Republic}} (Russia)
Latin la Indo-European, Italic, Latino-Faliscan extinct few[97] Vatican City}}
Latvian lv Indo-European, Baltic 1,750,000[98]Latvia}}
Ligurian lij Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 500,000[99]Liguria}} (Italy)
Lithuanian lt Indo-European, Baltic 3,000,000[100]Lithuania}}
Lombard lmo Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 3,600,000[101]Lombardy}} (Italy)
Low German (Low Saxon) nds wep Indo-European, Germanic, West 1,000,000[102] 2,600,000[102] Schleswig-Holstein}} (Germany)[103]
Luxembourgish lb Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 336,000[104] 386,000[104] Luxembourg}}
Macedonian mk Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern 1,400,000[105] North Macedonia}}
Mainfränkischvmf Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper 4,900,000[106]Baden-Württemberg}}, {{flag|Bavaria}} & {{flag|Thuringia}} (Germany)
Maltese mt Semitic, Arabic 520,000[107] Malta}}
Manx gv Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 230[108] 2,300[109] Isle of Man}}
Mari chm mhr Uralic, Finno-Ugric 500,000[110] Mari El}} (Russia)
Megleno-Romanian ruq Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 3,000[111] Greek Macedonia}} (Greece), {{flag|North Macedonia}}
Mirandese mwl Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 15,000[112]Miranda do Douro}} (Portugal)
Moksha mdf Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Mordvinic 2,000[113]Mordovia}} (Russia)
MontenegrincnrIndo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian240,700[114]Montenegro}}
Neapolitan nap Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 5,700,000[115]Campania}} (Italy)[116]
Nenets yrk Uralic, Samoyedic 4,000[117] Nenets Autonomous Okrug}} (Russia)
Norman nrf Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 50,000[118]Normandy}} (France), {{flag|Jersey}} (United Kingdom)
Norwegian no Indo-European, Germanic, North 5,200,000[119]Norway}}
Occitan oc Indo-European, Romance, Western, Occitano-Romance 500,000[120] Catalonia}} (Spain)
Ossetian os Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Eastern 450,000[121] {{flag>South Ossetia}}North Ossetia-Alania}} (Russia)
Palatinate Germanpfl Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 1,000,000[122]Germany}}
Picard pcd Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 200,000[123]Belgium}}
Piedmontese pms Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Italic 1,600,000[124]Piedmont}} (Italy)[125]
Polish pl Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 38,500,000[126] Poland}}
Portuguese pt Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 10,000,000[127]Portugal}}
Rhaeto-Romance fur lld roh Indo-European, Romance, Western 370,000[128]Switzerland}}Veneto}} Belluno, {{flag|Friuli-Venezia Giulia}}, {{flag|South Tyrol}},[129] & {{flag|Trentino}} (Italy)
Ripuarian (Platt)ksh Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 900,000[130]Belgium}}, {{flag|Germany}}, {{flag|Netherlands}}
Romani rom Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Western 1,500,000[131] Kosovo}}{{refn|group=nb|name=Kosovo}}[132]
Romanian ro Indo-European, Romance, Eastern 24,000,000[133] 28,000,000[134] Moldova}}, {{flag|Romania}}, {{flag|Transnistria}}Vojvodina}}, Timok Serbia
Russian ru Indo-European, Slavic, East 106,000,000[135] 160,000,000[135] {{flag>Abkhazia}} {{flag|Belarus}}, {{flag|Kazakhstan}}, {{flag|Russia}}, {{flag|South Ossetia}}, {{flag|Transnistria}}Gagauzia}} (Moldova), {{flag|Svalbard}} (Norway), {{flag|Ukraine}}
Sami se Uralic, Finno-Ugric 23,000[136] Norway}}Sweden}}, {{flag|Finland}}
Sardinian sc Indo-European, Romance 1,350,000[137]Sardinia}} (Italy)
Scots sco Indo-European, Germanic, West, Anglo-Frisian, Anglic 110,000[138]Scotland}} (United Kingdom), {{flag|Ulster}} (Ireland & United Kingdom)
Scottish Gaelic gd Indo-European, Celtic, Goidelic 57,000[139]Scotland}} (United Kingdom)
Serbian sr Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western, Serbo-Croatian 9,000,000[140] Bosnia and Herzegovina}}, {{flag|Kosovo}}{{refn|group=nb|name=Kosovo}}, {{flag|Serbia}}Croatia}}, {{flag|North Macedonia}}, {{flag|Montenegro}}
Sicilian scn Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 4,700,000[141]
Silesian szl Indo-European, Slavic, West, Lechitic 522,000[142] Upper Silesia}} (Poland, Czech Republic & Germany), {{flag|Silesia}} (Poland)
Silesian Germansli Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 11,000[143]Upper Silesia}} (Poland, Czech Republic & Germany), {{flag|Silesia}} (Poland)
Slovak sk Indo-European, Slavic, West, Czech–Slovak 5,200,000[144] Slovakia}}Vojvodina}} (Serbia), {{flag|Czech Republic}}
Slovene sl Indo-European, Slavic, South, Western 2,100,000[145] Slovenia}}
Sorbian (Wendish) wen Indo-European, Slavic, West20,000[146]Brandenburg}} & {{flag|Sachsen}} (Germany)[147]
Spanish (Castilian) es Indo-European, Romance, Western, West Iberian 38,000,000[148] 76,000,000[60] Spain}}
Swabian Germanswg Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 820,000[149]Germany}}
Swedish sv Indo-European, Germanic, North 11,100,000[150] 13,280,000[150] Finland}}, {{flag|Sweden}}
Swiss Germangsw Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 5,000,000[151]Switzerland}} (as German)
Tabasaran tab Northeast Caucasian, Lezgic 126,900[152]Dagestan}} (Russia)
Tat ttt Indo-European, Iranian, Western 30,000[153]Dagestan}} (Russia)
Tatar tt Turkic, Kipchak 4,300,000[154] Tatarstan}} (Russia)
Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz12,000,000[155] Turkey}}, {{flag|Cyprus}}Northern Cyprus}}
Udmurt udm Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Permic 340,000[156] Udmurtia}} (Russia)
Ukrainian uk Indo-European, Slavic, East32,600,000[157]Ukraine}}, {{flag|Transnistria}}
Upper Saxonsxu Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Central 2,000,000[158]Sachsen}} (Germany)
Vepsian vep Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 1,640[159]Karelia}} Karelia (Russia)
Venetian vec Indo-European, Romance, Italo-Dalmatian 3,800,000[160]Veneto}} (Italy)[161]
Võro vro Uralic, Finno-Ugric, Finnic 87,000[162] Võru County}} (Estonia)
Walloon wa Indo-European, Romance, Western, Gallo-Romance, Oïl 600,000[163]Wallonia}} (Belgium)
Walser Germanwae Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German, Upper, Alemannic 20,000[164]Switzerland}}
Welsh cy Indo-European, Celtic, Brittonic 562,000[165] 750,000 Wales}} (United Kingdom)
Wymysoryswym Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 70[166]Poland}}
Yenishyec Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 16,000[167]Switzerland}}
Yiddish yi Indo-European, Germanic, West, High German 600,000[168]Bosnia and Herzegovina}}, {{flag|Netherlands}}, {{flag|Poland}}, {{flag|Romania}}, {{flag|Sweden}}, {{flag|Ukraine}}

Immigrant communities

Recent (post-1945) immigration to Europe introduced substantial communities of speakers of non-European languages.[169]

The largest such communities include Arabic speakers (see Arabs in Europe)

and Turkish speakers (beyond European Turkey and the historical sphere of influence of the Ottoman Empire, see Turks in Europe).[170]

Armenians, Berbers and Kurds have diaspora communities of c. 1–2 million each. The various languages of Africa and languages of India form numerous smaller diaspora communities.

List of the largest immigrant languages

NameISO 639ClassificationL1Ethnic diaspora
Arabic ar Afro-Asiatic, Semitic > 4 million[171] c. 12 million[172]
Turkish tr Turkic, Oghuz c. 3 million[173] c. 7 million[174]
Armenian hy Indo-European c. 1 million[175] c. 2-3 million[176]
Kurdish ku Indo-European, Iranian, Western c. 0.6 million[177] c. 1 million[178]
Bengali–Assamese bn as syl Indo-European, Indo-Aryan c. 0.6 million[179] c. 1 million[180]
Azerbaijani az Turkic, Oghuz c. 0.5 million[181] c. 0.7 million[182]
Kabyle kab Afro-Asiatic, Berber c. 0.5 million[183] c. 1 million[184]
Chinesezh Sino-Tibetan, Sinitic c. 0.3 million[185] c. 2 million[186]
UrduurIndo-European, Indo-Aryan c. 0.3 million[187] c. 1.8 million[188]
Uzbek uz Turkic, Karluk c. 0.3 million[189] c. 1–2 million[190]
Persian fa Indo-European, Iranian, Western c. 0.3 million[191] c. 0.4 million[192]
Punjabi pa Indo-European, Indo-Aryan c. 0.3 million[193] c. 0.7 million[194]
Gujarati gu Indo-European, Indo-Aryan c. 0.2 million[195] c. 0.6 million[196]
Tamil ta Dravidian c. 0.2 million[197] c. 0.5 million[198]
Somali so Afro-Asiatic, Cushitic c. 0.2 million[199] c. 0.4 million[200]

See also

{{Portal|Europe|Language}}
  • Ethnic groups in Europe
  • Eurolinguistics
  • European Day of Languages
  • Multilingual countries and regions of Europe
  • Travellingua

Notes

1. ^{{cite web|title=International migrant stock: By destination and origin|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesorigin.shtml|publisher=United Nations}}.
2. ^{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Lawrence |last2=Perez-Perdomo |first2=Rogelio |date=2003 |title=Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEMUKyPTE9AC |location= |publisher=Stanford University Press |page= |isbn=0804766959 |author-link1=Lawrence M. Friedman |author-link2= }}
3. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121127094111.htm|title=Linguist makes sensational claim: English is a Scandinavian language|website=ScienceDaily|access-date=2016-03-06}}
4. ^F. Violi, Lessico Grecanico-Italiano-Grecanico, Apodiafàzzi, Reggio Calabria, 1997.
5. ^Paolo Martino, L'isola grecanica dell'Aspromonte. Aspetti sociolinguistici, 1980. Risultati di un'inchiesta del 1977
6. ^Filippo Violi, Storia degli studi e della letteratura popolare grecanica, C.S.E. Bova (RC), 1992
7. ^Filippo Condemi, Grammatica Grecanica, Coop. Contezza, Reggio Calabria, 1987;
8. ^In Salento e Calabria le voci della minoranza linguistica greca | Treccani, il portale del sapere
9. ^{{cite web |last=Alexander |first=Marie |title=2nd International Conference of Maltese Linguistics: Saturday, September 19 – Monday, September 21, 2009 |url=http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/maltese/abstracts.aspx |year=2009 |publisher=International Association of Maltese Linguistics |accessdate=2 November 2009|display-authors=etal}}
10. ^{{cite journal |first=J. |last=Aquilina |title=Maltese as a Mixed Language |journal=Journal of Semitic Studies |year=1958 |volume=3 |number=1 |pages=58–79 |doi=10.1093/jss/3.1.58}}
11. ^{{cite journal |title=The Structure of Maltese |first=Joseph |last=Aquilina |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=80 |number=3 |date=July–September 1960 |pages=267–68 |doi=10.2307/596187}}
12. ^{{cite journal |title=Europe's New Arabic Connection |first=Louis |last=Werner |first2=Alan |last2=Calleja |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200406/europe.s.new.arabic.connection.htm |journal=Saudi Aramco World |date=November–December 2004 |access-date=2016-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929195459/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200406/europe.s.new.arabic.connection.htm |archive-date=2012-09-29 |dead-url=yes |df= }}
13. ^{{cite journal |title=Review [untitled] of Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, Les Academies Princieres de Bucarest et de Jassy et leur Professeurs |journal=Church History |volume=45 |number=1 |date = March 1976|pages=115–116 |quote=...Greek, the lingua franca of commerce and religion, provided a cultural unity to the Balkans...Greek penetrated Moldavian and Wallachian territories as early as the fourteenth century.... The heavy influence of Greek culture upon the intellectual and academic life of Bucharest and Jassy was longer termed than historians once believed. |first=James Steve |last=Counelis |doi=10.2307/3164593}}
14. ^{{cite book |title=Lingua Franca in the Mediterranean |first=John E. |last=Wansbrough |chapter=Chapter 3: Lingua Franca |year=1996 |publisher=Routledge}}
15. ^1 {{cite book |title=Language wars and linguistic politics |first=Louis Jean |last=Calvet |location=Oxford [England]; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |pages=175–76}}
16. ^{{cite book |page=98 |title=Decolonizing international relations |first=Branwen Gruffydd |last=Jones |location=Lanham, MD|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2006}}
17. ^{{harvnb|Kahane|1986|p=495}}
18. ^{{cite journal |first=Jeroen |last=Darquennes |first2=Peter |last2=Nelde |title=German as a Lingua Franca |journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics |volume=26 |pages=61–77 |year=2006 |doi=10.1017/s0267190506000043}}
19. ^{{cite web|title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992|url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/148.htm|publisher=Council of Europe|year=1992}}
20. ^Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum (in German)
The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP letterhead is printed in Fraktur.
"For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:
It is wrong to regard or to describe the so‑called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so‑called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.
Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.
The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.
On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script".
21. ^{{cite web|title=Languages Policy: Linguistic diversity: Official languages of the EU|url=http://ec.europa.eu/languages/policy/linguistic-diversity/official-languages-eu_en.htm|publisher=European Commission, European Union|date=4 June 2009|accessdate= 9 August 2015}}
22. ^{{cite web|title=Languages of Europe: Official EU languages |url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |publisher=European Commission, European Union |year=2009 |accessdate=5 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm |archivedate=2 February 2009 }}
23. ^{{cite web|title=Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) |url=http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp |publisher=Council of Europe |accessdate=5 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091030205032/http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp |archivedate=30 October 2009 }}
24. ^{{cite web|title=Europeans and Their Languages|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=European Commission|year=2006|accessdate=November 5, 2009|page=8}}
25. ^{{e18|abk|Abkhazian}}
26. ^{{e18|ady|Adyghe }}
27. ^{{e18|sqi|Albanian}}
28. ^[https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/60448] Report about Census of population 2011 of Aragonese Sociolinguistics Seminar and University of Zaragoza
29. ^People that declared that they can speak aragonese in the 2011 Spanish census. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101002219/http://www.aragondigital.es/noticia.asp?notid=126286 |date=2015-01-01 }}
30. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/aae/|title=Albanian, Arbëreshë|publisher=}}
31. ^{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4xNntgJm9vkC&pg=PA9 |last = Toso |first = Fiorenzo |title = Lingue d'Europa. La pluralità linguistica dei Paesi europei fra passato e presente |editor = Baldini & Castoldi |location = Roma |year = 2006 |page = 90 |access-date = July 6, 2015}}
32. ^{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wmloAAAAMAAJ |title = Arbëreshë: cultura e civiltà di un popolo|editor=P. Bruni|date=2004}}
33. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/aae/***EDITION***|title=Ethnologue: Albanian, Arbëreshë|access-date=October 29, 2014}}
34. ^"Currently there are about fifty Albanian-speaking centres in Italy, with a population estimated to be around 100,000, though there are no precise figures for the actual numbers of Italo-Albanians. The most recent precise figure is given in the census for 1921; the number of Albanian speakers was 80,282, far fewer than the 197 thousand mentioned in the study of A. Frega of 1997."

{{cite web|url = http://www.fp6migratoryflows.uniba.it/html/AlbanianCulturalProfile.pdf |title = Albanian Cultural Profile|editor1=Amelia De Lucia |editor2=Giorgio Gruppioni |editor3=Rosalina Grumo |editor4=Gjergj Vinjahu |publisher=Dipartimento di Scienze Statistiche, Università degli Studi di Bari, Italia}}
35. ^https://www.consiglioregionale.calabria.it%2Fupload%2Ftesticoordinati%2FLR%252015-2003(TC).doc&usg=AOvVaw3b_0rnoUMKe_LqDmReh8QK
36. ^{{e18|rup|Aromanian }}
37. ^1 [https://www.ehu.eus/documents/1457190/1547454/Avance+III+Encuesta+Sociolling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica+Asturias.pdf/aba19c6f-4dab-470c-8a33-157248373072 III Sociolinguistic Study of Asturias (2017)]. Euskobarometro.
38. ^German dialect, {{e18|bar|Bavarian}}
39. ^Total population 24 million, c. 130,000 in Dagestan, c. 400,000 in Azerbajjan's Quba-Khachmaz region, technically in Europe (being north of the Caucasus watershed). In addition, there are about 0.5 million speakers in immigrant communities in Russia, see #Immigrant communities. {{e18|aze|Azerbaijani }}
40. ^{{e18|bak|Bashkort }}
41. ^{{fr icon}} VI° Enquête Sociolinguistique en Euskal herria (Communauté Autonome d'Euskadi, Navarre et Pays Basque Nord) (2016).
42. ^{{e18|bel|Belarusian }}
43. ^{{e18|bos|Bosnian}}
44. ^{{e18|bre|Breton}}
45. ^{{e18|bul|Bulgarian }}
46. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/cat/|title=Catalan|publisher=}}
47. ^Catalan News Agency - Number of Catalan speakers rising despite adverse contextInforme sobre la Situació de la Llengua Catalana | Xarxa CRUSCAT. Coneixements, usos i representacions del català
48. ^{{e18|che|Chechen }}
49. ^{{e18|chv|Chuvash }}
50. ^German dialect, {{e18|cim|Cimbrian}}
51. ^UK 2011 Census
52. ^1 {{e18|cos|Corsican }}
53. ^{{e18|crh|Crimean Tatar }}
54. ^{{e18|hrv|Croatian }}
55. ^{{e18|ces|Czech }}
56. ^{{e18|dan|Danish }}
57. ^recognized as official language in Nordfriesland, Schleswig-Flensburg, Flensburg and Rendsburg-Eckernförde (§ 82b LVwG)
58. ^{{e18|nld|Dutch }}
59. ^{{e18|eng|English }}
60. ^1 2 3 4 Europeans and their Languages {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160106183351/http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf |date= 6 January 2016 }}, Data for EU27, published in 2012.
61. ^{{e18|myv|Erzya}}
62. ^{{e18|est|Estonian }}
63. ^{{e18|ext|Extremaduran}}
64. ^{{e18|fao|Faroese }}
65. ^{{e18|fin|Finnish }}
66. ^{{e18|frp|Franco-Provençal}}
67. ^{{e18|fra|French }}
68. ^{{cite book|title=Le Statut spécial de la Vallée d'Aoste, Article 38, Title VI |year= |publisher=Region Vallée d'Aoste |url=http://www.regione.vda.it/amministrazione/autonomia/statutospeciale/titolo6_f.asp |accessdate=2 May 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104223214/http://www.regione.vda.it/amministrazione/autonomia/statutospeciale/titolo6_f.asp |archivedate= 4 November 2011 |df= }}
69. ^{{e18|fry|Frisian}}
70. ^recognized as official language in the Nordfriesland district and in Helgoland (§ 82b LVwG).
71. ^{{e18|gag|Gagauz}}
72. ^{{e18|glg|Galician }}
73. ^includes:bar Bavarian,cim Cimbrian,ksh Kölsch,sli Lower Silesian,vmf Mainfränkisch,pfl Palatinate German,swg Swabian German,gsw Swiss German,sxu Upper Saxon,wae Walser German,wep Westphalian,wym Wymysorys,yec Yenish,yid Yiddish;see German dialects.
74. ^STATUTO SPECIALE PER IL TRENTINO-ALTO ADIGE (1972), Art. 99–101.
75. ^11 million in Greece, out of 13.4 million in total. {{e18|ell|Greek }}
76. ^{{e18|hun|Hungarian }}
77. ^{{e18|isl|Icelandic }}
78. ^{{e18|izh|Ingrian }}
79. ^{{e18|inh|Ingush }}
80. ^{{e18|gle|Irish }}
81. ^{{e18|ist|Istriot }}
82. ^{{e18|ruo|Istro-Romanian }}
83. ^{{e18|ita|Italian }}
84. ^N. Vincent, Italian, in B. Comrie (ed.) The world's major languages, London, Croom Helm, 1981. pp. 279-302.
85. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.consiglioregionale.calabria.it/|title=Consiglio regionale della Calabria|website=www.consiglioregionale.calabria.it}}
86. ^{{Cite web |url=https://www.montagneinrete.it/uploads/tx_gorillary/lingue-parlate-in-italia_1487319992.docx |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180122001135/https://www.montagneinrete.it/uploads/tx_gorillary/lingue-parlate-in-italia_1487319992.docx |archive-date=2018-01-22 |dead-url=yes |df= }}
87. ^{{e18|itk|Judeo-Italian }}
88. ^{{e18|lad|Judaeo-Spanish}}
89. ^SIL Ethnologue:"Not the dominant language for most. Formerly the main language of Sephardic Jewry. Used in literary and music contexts."ca. 100k speakers in total, most of them in Israel, small communities in the Balkans, Greece, Turkey and in Spain.
90. ^{{e18|kbd|Kabardian }}
91. ^{{e18|xal|Oirat}}
92. ^{{e18|krl|Karelian}}
93. ^{{e18|krc|Karachay-Balkar}}
94. ^{{e18|csb|Kashubian }}
95. ^About 10 million in Kazakhstan. {{e18|kaz|Kazakh }}. Technically, the westernmost portions of Kazakhstan (Atyrau Region, West Kazakhstan Region) are in Europe, with a total population of less than one million.
96. ^220,000 native speakers out of an ethnic population of 550,000. Combines Komi-Permyak (koi) with 65,000 speakers and Komi-Zyrian (kpv) with 156,000 speakers. {{e18|kom|Komi}}
97. ^Contemporary Latin: People fluent in Latin as a second language are probably in the dozens, not hundreds. Reginald Foster (as of 2013) estimated "no more than 100" according to Robin Banerji, [https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21412604 Pope resignation: Who speaks Latin these days?], BBC News, 12 February 2013.
98. ^{{e18|lav|Latvian }}
99. ^{{e18|lij|Ligurian}}
100. ^{{e18|lit|Lithuanian }}
101. ^{{e18|lmo|Lombard }}
102. ^1 2.6 million cited as estimate of all Germans who speak Platt "well or very well" (including L2; 4.3 million cited as the number of all speakers including those with "moderate" knowledge) in 2009. Heute in Bremen. „Ohne Zweifel gefährdet“. Frerk Möller im Interview, taz, 21. Februar 2009.However, Wirrer (1998) described Low German as "moribund".Jan Wirrer: Zum Status des Niederdeutschen. In: Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik. 26, 1998, S. 309. The number of native speakers is unknown, estimated at 1 million by SIL Ethnologue. {{e18|nds|Low German}}, {{e18|wep|Westphalian}}
103. ^The question whether Low German should be considered as subsumed under "German" as the official language of Germany has a complicated legal history. In the wake of the ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (1998), Schleswig-Holstein has explicitly recognized Low German as a regional language with official status (§ 82b LVwG).
104. ^1 {{e18|ltz|Luxembourgish }}
105. ^{{e18|mkd|Macedonian }}
106. ^German dialect, {{e18|vmf|Main-Franconian }}
107. ^{{e18|mlt|Maltese }}
108. ^{{e18|glv|Manx }}
109. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/apr/02/how-manx-language-came-back-from-dead-isle-of-man |title=How the Manx language came back from the dead |last1=Whitehead |first1=Sarah |date=2 April 2015 |website=theguardian.com|access-date=4 April 2015}}
110. ^{{e18|chm|Mari }}
111. ^{{e18|ruq|Megleno-Romanian }}
112. ^{{e18|mwl|Mirandese }}
113. ^{{e18|mdf|Moksha}}
114. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ME/languages|title=Montenegro|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-04-29|language=en}}
115. ^{{e18|nap|Neapolitan }}
116. ^In 2008, law was passed by the Region of Campania, stating that the Neapolitan language was to be legally protected. {{cite web |url=http://www.denaro.it/VisArticolo.aspx?IdArt=548026 |title=Tutela del dialetto, primo via libera al Ddl campano |work=Il Denaro |date=15 October 2008 |accessdate=22 June 2013 |language=Italian |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727043316/http://www.denaro.it/VisArticolo.aspx?IdArt=548026 |archivedate=27 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
117. ^total 22,000 native speakers (2010 Russian census) out of an ethnic population of 44,000. Most of these are in Siberia, with about 8,000 ethnic Nenets in European Russia (2010 census, mostly in Nenets Autonomous Okrug)
118. ^{{e18|nrf|Jèrriais }}
119. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nor|title=Norwegian|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-08-06|language=en}}
120. ^{{e18|oci|Occitan}}.includes Auvergnat,Gascon,Languedocien,Limousin,Provençal,Vivaro-Alpine.Most native speakers are in France, their number is unknown, as varieties of Occitan are treated as French dialects with no official status.
121. ^Total 570,000, of which 450,000 in the Russian Federation. {{e18|oss|Ossetian}}
122. ^German dialect, {{e18|pfl|Palatinate German}}
123. ^{{e18|pcd|Picard }}
124. ^{{e18|pms|Piedmontese }}
125. ^Piedmontese was recognised as Piedmont's regional language by the regional parliament in 1999. Motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Approvazione da parte del Senato del Disegno di Legge che tutela le minoranze linguistiche sul territorio nazionale - Approfondimenti, approved unanimously on 15 December 1999, Text of motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Consiglio Regionale del Piemonte, Ordine del Giorno 1118.
126. ^{{e18|pol|Polish }}
127. ^{{e18|por|Portuguese }}
128. ^Includes Friulian, Romansh, Ladin. {{e18|fur|Friulian}} {{e18|lld|Ladin }} {{e18|roh|Romansch }}
129. ^STATUTO SPECIALE PER IL TRENTINO-ALTO ADIGE (1972), Art. 102.
130. ^German dialect, {{e18|ksh|Kölsch}}
131. ^{{e18|rmn|Romani, Balkan}}{{e18|rml|Romani, Baltic}}{{e18|rmc|Romani, Carpathian}}{{e18|rmf|Romani, Finnish}}{{e18|rmo|Romani, Sinte}}{{e18|rmy|Romani, Vlax }}{{e18|rmw|Romani, Welsh}}
132. ^Constitution of Kosovo, p. 8.
133. ^{{e18|ron|Romanian }}
134. ^{{cite web|title=Româna|url=http://unilat.org/DPEL/Promotion/L_Odyssee_des_langues/Roumain/ro|website=unilat.org|publisher=Latin Union|accessdate=2 April 2018|language=ro}}
135. ^1 L1: 119 million in the Russian Federation (of which c. 83 million in European Russia), 14.3 million in Ukraine, 6.67 million in Belarus, 0.67 million in Latvia, 0.38 million in Estonia, 0.38 million in Moldova. L1+L2: c. 100 million in European Russia, 39 million in Ukraine, 7 million in Belarus, 7 million in Poland, 2 million in Latvia, c. 2 million in the European portion of Kazakhstan, 1.8 million in Moldova, 1.1 million in Estonia. {{e18|rus|Russian}}.
136. ^mostly Northern Sami (sma), ca. 20,000 speakers; smaller communities of Lule Sami (smj, c. 2,000 speakers) and other variants. {{e18|sme|Northern Sami}}, {{e18|smj|Lule Sami}}{{e18|sma|Southern Sami}}, {{e18|sjd|Kildin Sami}}, {{e18|sms|Skolt Sami}}, {{e18|smn|Inari Sami}}.
137. ^AA. VV. Calendario Atlante De Agostini 2017, Novara, Istituto Geografico De Agostini, 2016, p. 230
138. ^{{e18|sco|Scots }}
139. ^{{e18|gla|Gaelic, Scottish }}
140. ^{{e18|srp|Serbian }}
141. ^{{e18|scn|Sicilian }}
142. ^{{e19|szl|Silesian }}
143. ^German dialect, {{e18|sli|Lower Silesian}}
144. ^{{e18|slk|Slovak }}
145. ^{{e18|slv|Slovene }}
146. ^{{e18|hsb|Sorbian, Upper }}
147. ^GVG § 184 Satz 2; VwVfGBbg § 23 Abs. 5; SächsSorbG § 9, right to use Sorbian in communication with the authorities guaranteed for the "Sorbian settlement area" (Sorbisches Siedlungsgebiet, Lusatia).
148. ^{{e18|spa|Spanish }}
149. ^German dialect, {{e18|swg|Swabian German}}
150. ^1 {{e18|swe|Swedish }}
151. ^German dialect, {{e18|swg|Swiss German}}
152. ^{{e18|tab|Tabassaran }}
153. ^{{e18|ttt|Tat}}, {{e18|jdt|Judeo-Tat}}2,000 speakers in the Russian Federation according to the 2010 census (including Judeo-Tat). About 28,000 speakers in Azerbaijan; most speakers live along or just north of the Caucasus ridge (and are thus technically in Europe), with some also settling just south of the Caucasus ridge, in Transcaucasia.
154. ^{{e18|tat|Tatar}}
155. ^c. 11 million in European Turkey, 0.6 million in Bulgaria, 0.6 million in Cyprus and Northern Cyprus, not including several million recent immigrants to Western Europe (see #Immigrant communities).
156. ^{{e18|udm|Udmurt}}
157. ^{{e18|ukr|Ukrainian }}
158. ^German dialect, {{e18|sxu|Upper Saxon German}}
159. ^Russian Census 2010. {{e18|vep|Veps}}
160. ^{{e18|vec|Venetian }}
161. ^A motion to recognise Venetian as an official regional language has been approved by the Regional Council of Veneto in 2007. {{cite web|url=http://www.consiglioveneto.it/crvportal/leggi/2007/07lr0008.html?numLegge=8&annoLegge=2007&tipoLegge=Alr |title=Consiglio Regionale Veneto – Leggi Regionali |publisher=Consiglioveneto.it |accessdate=2009-05-06}}
162. ^{{e18|vro|Võro }}
163. ^{{e18|wln|Walloon }}
164. ^Highest Alemannic dialects, {{e18|wae|Walser German}}
165. ^{{e18|cym|Welsh }}
166. ^Moribund German dialect spoken in Wilamowice, Poland. 70 speakers recorded in 2006. {{e18|wym|Wymysorys}}
167. ^{{e18|yec|Yenish}}
168. ^Total population estimated at 1.5 million as of 1991, of which c. 40% in the Ukraine. {{e18|yid|Yiddish }}, {{e18|ydd| Eastern Yiddish }}, {{e18|yih|Western Yiddish }}
169. ^{{cite web|title=International migrant stock: By destination and origin|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesorigin.shtml|publisher=United Nations}}
170. ^{{citation |last=Cole|first=Jeffrey|year=2011|title=Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia|place=|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-59884-302-8|page=367}}
171. ^[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/FR France]: 4 million, [https://www.ethnologue.com/country/DE Germany]: 500k (2015),[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ES Spain]: 200k[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GB UK]: 159k (2011 census)
172. ^Arab diaspora, mostly in France, Italy, Spain, Germany, UK, Sweden, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, current size unknown due to the European migrant crisis of 2015–present.
173. ^[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/DE Germany]: 1,510k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/FR France]: 444k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/NL Netherlands]: 388k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/AT Austria]: 197k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/RU Russia]: 146k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GB UK]: 99k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CH Switzerland]: 44k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SE Sweden]: 44.
174. ^See Turks in Europe: only counting recent (post-Ottoman era) immigration:Germany: 4 million,France: 1 million, UK: 0.5 million,Netherlands: 0.5 million,Austria: 0.4 million,Switzerland, Sweden and Russia: c. 0.1.-0.2 million each.
175. ^830k in Russia (2010 census), 100k in Ukraine ([https://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/hye/ SIL Ethnologue 2015]).
176. ^1-2 million Armenians in Russia.France 250-750k,Ukraine 100k,Germany 100k,Greece 60-80k,Spain 40k,Belgium 30k,Czechia 12k,Sweden 12k,Bulgaria 10-22k,Belarus 8k, Austria 6k,Poland 3-50k,Hungary 3-30k,Netherlands 3-9k,Switzerland 3-5k,Cyprus 3k,Moldova 1-3k,UK 1-2k.
177. ^[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/DE Germany]: 541k
178. ^Kurdish population: mostly Kurds in Germany, Kurds in France, Kurds in Sweden.
179. ^Sylheti: 300k in the UK, Bengali: 221k in the UK.
180. ^see British Indian, Bangladeshi diaspora, Bengali diaspora.
181. ^515k in Russia (2010 census)
182. ^Azerbaijani diaspora: Russia 600k, Ukraine 45k, not counting c. 0.4 million in Azerbajjan's Quba-Khachmaz region, technically in Europe (being north of the Caucasus watershed).
183. ^[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/FR France]: 500k
184. ^Kabyle people in France: c. 1 million.
185. ^Germany 120k, Russia: 70k, UK 66k, Spain 20k.
186. ^Overseas Chinese: France 0.7 million, UK: 0.5 million, Russia: 0.3 million, Italy: 0.3 million, Germany: 0.2 million, Spain: 0.1 million.
187. ^UK: 269k (2011 census).
188. ^Pakistani diaspora, the majority Pakistanis in the UK.
189. ^Russia: 274k (2010 census)
190. ^see Uzbeks in Russia.
191. ^UK: 76k, Sweden: 74k, Germany: 72k, France 40k.
192. ^Iranian diaspora: Germany: 100k, Sweden: 100k, UK: 50k, Russia: 50k, Netherlands: 35k, Denmark: 20k.
193. ^UK: 280k
194. ^see British Punjabis
195. ^UK: 213k
196. ^see Gujarati diaspora
197. ^UK: 101k, [https://www.ethnologue.com/country/DE Germany]: 35k, Switzerland: 22k.
198. ^Tamil diaspora: UK 300k, France 100k, Germany 50k, Switzerland 40k, Netherlands, 20k, Norway 10k.
199. ^[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/GB UK]: 86k, [https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SE Sweden]: 53k,[https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IT Italy]: 50k
200. ^Somali diaspora:UK: 114k, Sweden: 64k, Norway: 42k, Netherlands: 39k, Germany: 34k, Denmark: 21k, Finland: 19k.

References

{{Reflist}}

External links

{{Commons category|Languages of Europe}}
  • {{cite web |title=The Alphabets of Europe |url=http://www.evertype.com/alphabets |first=Michael |last=Everson |publisher=evertype.com |year=2001 |accessdate=19 March 2010}}
  • {{cite web |title=Europe's Mosaic of Languages|url=http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011081855 |first=Harald |last=Haarmann |publisher=Institute of European History |year=2011 |language=English |accessdate=2 November 2011}}
  • {{cite web |title=Luingoi in Europa |first=Stefan |last=Reissmann |first2=Urion |last2=Argador |url=http://www.argador.info/skope/tero/Regioi/Europa/kultur/scpraaxoi/index.html |language=Esperanto, English, German |publisher=Reissmann & Argador |year=2006 |accessdate=2 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622183043/http://www.argador.info/skope/tero/Regioi/Europa/kultur/scpraaxoi/index.html |archive-date=22 June 2009 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}
  • Map of Minorities & Regional and Minority Languages of Europe, Language Diversity (2017)
  • {{cite web |title=Europako Mapa linguistikoa |url=http://www.muturzikin.com/carteseurope/europe.htm |first=Mutur |last=Zikin |publisher=muturzikin.com |date=2007 |language=Basque |accessdate=2 November 2009}}
{{Languages of Europe}}{{Countries and languages lists}}

1 : Languages of Europe
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