“Ledo Road”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Ledo Road (from Ledo, Assam, India to Kunming, Yunnan, China) was an overland connection between India and China, built during World War II to enable the Western Allies to deliver supplies to China, to aid the war effort against Japan — as an alternative to the Burma Road became required, once that had been cut-off by the Japanese in 1942. It was renamed the Stilwell Road, after General Joseph Stilwell of the U.S. Army, in early 1945 at the suggestion of Chiang Kai-shek. It passes through the Burmese towns of Shingbwiyang, Myitkyina and Bhamo in Kachin state.^[3]

In the 19th century, British railway builders had surveyed the Pangsau Pass, which is {{convert|1136|m|ft|abbr=off}} high on the India-Burma border, on the Patkai crest, above Nampong, Arunachal Pradesh and Ledo, Tinsukia (part of Assam). They concluded that a track could be pushed through to Burma and down the Hukawng Valley. Although the proposal was dropped, the British prospected the Patkai Range for a road from Assam into northern Burma. British engineers had surveyed the route for a road for the first {{convert|80|mi|km|order=flip|-1|abbr=off}}. After the British had been pushed back out of most of Burma by the Japanese, building this road became a priority for the United States. After Rangoon was captured by the Japanese and before the Ledo Road was finished, the majority of supplies to the Chinese had to be delivered via airlift over the eastern end of the Himalayan Mountains known as the Hump.

Of the {{convert|1,726|km}} long road, {{convert|1033|km}} is in Burma and {{convert|632|km}} is in China with the remainder in India.^[4]

After the war, the road fell into disuse. In 2010, the BBC reported, "Much of the road has been swallowed up by jungle."^[4]

Construction

On 1 December 1942, British General Sir Archibald Wavell, the supreme commander of the Far Eastern Theatre, agreed with American General Stilwell to make the Ledo Road an American NCAC operation. The Ledo Road was intended to be the primary supply route to China and was built under the direction of General Stilwell from the railhead at Ledo, Assam, in India,^[5] to Mong-Yu road junction where it joined the Burma Road. From there trucks could continue on to Wanting on the Chinese frontier, so that supplies could be delivered to the reception point in Kunming, China. Stilwell's staff estimated that the Ledo Road route would supply 65,000 tons of supplies per month, greatly surpassing tonnage then being airlifted over the Hump to China.^[6] General Claire Lee Chennault, the USAAF Fourteenth Air Force commander, thought the projected tonnage levels were overly optimistic and doubted that such an extended network of trails through difficult jungle could ever match the amount of supplies that could be delivered with modern cargo transport aircraft.^[7]

The road was built by 15,000 American soldiers (60 percent of whom were African-Americans) and 35,000 local workers at an estimated cost of US$150 million (or $2 billion 2017).^[8] But the costs also involved over 1,100 Americans who died during the construction, aside from many more locals.^[9] The human cost of the 1,079 mile road was therefore described as "A Man A Mile".^[10] As most of Burma was in Japanese hands it was not possible to acquire information as to the topography, soils, and river behaviour before construction started. This information had to be acquired as the road was constructed.

General Stilwell had organized a 'Service of Supply' (SOS) under the command of Major General Raymond A. Wheeler, a high-profile US Army engineer and assigned him to look after the construction of the Ledo Road. Major General Wheeler, in turn, assigned responsibility of base commander for the road construction to Colonel John C. Arrowsmith. Later, he was replaced by Colonel Lewis A. Pick, an expert US Army engineer.

Work started on the first {{convert|166|km|mi|abbr=on}} section of the road in December 1942, followed a steep, narrow trail through territory from Ledo, across the Patkai Range through the Pangsau Pass, nicknamed "Hell Pass" for its difficulty, and down to Shingbwiyang, Burma. Sometimes rising as high as {{convert|1400|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=2}}, the road required the removal of earth at the rate of {{convert|1800|m3/km|cuft/mi|abbr=off}}. Steep gradients, hairpin curves and sheer drops of {{convert|60|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, all surrounded by a thick rain forest was the norm for this first section. The first bulldozer reached Shingbwiyang on 27 December 1943, three days ahead of schedule.

The building of this section allowed much-needed supplies to flow to the troops engaged in attacking the Japanese 18th Division, which was defending the northern area of Burma with their strongest forces around the towns of Kamaing, Mogaung, and Myitkyina. Before the Ledo road reached Shingbwiyang, Allied troops (the majority of whom were American-trained Chinese divisions of the X Force) had been totally dependent on supplies flown in over the Patkai Range. As the Japanese were forced to retreat south, the Ledo Road was extended. This was made considerably easier from Shingbwiyang by the presence of a fair weather road built by the Japanese, and the Ledo Road generally followed the Japanese trace. As the road was built, two {{convert|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} fuel pipe lines were laid side-by-side so that fuel for the supply vehicles could be piped instead of trucked along the road.

After the initial section to Shingbwiyang, more sections followed: Warazup, Myitkyina, and Bhamo, {{convert|600|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Ledo. At that point the road joined a spur of the old Burma road and, although improvements to further sections followed, the road was passable. The spur passed through Namkham {{convert|558|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Ledo and finally at the Mong-Yu road junction, {{convert|748|km|mi|abbr=on}} from Ledo, the Ledo Road met the Burma Road. To get to the Mong-Yu junction the Ledo Road had to span 10 major rivers and 155 secondary streams, averaging one bridge every {{convert|4.5|km|mi|abbr=on|1}}.

For the first convoys, if they turned right, they were on their way to Lashio {{convert|160|km|mi|abbr=on|sigfig=2}} to the south through Japanese-occupied Burma. If they turned left, Wanting lay {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} to the north just over the China-Burma border. However, by late 1944, the road still did not reach China; by this time, tonnage airlifted over the Hump to China had significantly expanded with the arrival of more modern transport aircraft.

In late 1944, barely two years after Stilwell accepted responsibility for building the Ledo Road, it connected to the Burma Road though some sections of the road beyond Myitkyina at Hukawng Valley were under repair due to heavy monsoon rains. It became a highway stretching from Assam, India to Kunming, China {{convert|1736|km|mi|abbr=on}} length. On 12 January 1945, the first convoy of 113 vehicles, led by General Pick, departed from Ledo; they reached Kunming, China on 4 February 1945. In the six months following its opening, trucks carried 129,000 tons of supplies from India to China.^[11] Twenty-six thousand trucks that carried the cargo (one way) were handed over to the Chinese.^[11]

As General Chennault had predicted, supplies carried over the Ledo Road at no time approached tonnage levels of supplies airlifted monthly into China over the Hump.^[12] The road, however, complemented the airlift. The capture of the Myitkyina airstrip enabled the Air Transport Command "to fly a more southerly route without fear of Japanese fighters, thus shortening and flattening the Hump trip with astonishing results."^[13] In July 1943 the air tonnage was 5,500 rising to 8,000 in September and 13,000 in November.^[14] After the capture of Myitkyina deliveries jumped from 18,000 tons in June 1944 to 39,000 in November 1944.^[13]

In July 1945, the last full month before the end of the war, 71,000 tons of supplies were flown over the Hump, compared to only 6,000 tons using the Ledo Road; the airlift operation continued in operation until the end of the war, with a total tonnage of 650,000 tons compared to 147,000 for the Ledo Road.^[7]^[12] By the time supplies were flowing over the Ledo Road in large quantities, operations in other theaters had shaped the course of the war against Japan.^[6]

When flying over the Hukawng Valley during the monsoon, Mountbatten asked his staff the name of the river below them. An American officer replied, "That's not a river, it's the Ledo Road."^[15]

American Army units assigned to the Ledo Road

From the middle of April until the middle of May 1944 Company A of the 879th Airborne Engineer Battalion worked 24 hours a day on the Ledo Road, construction of their base camp and Shingbwiyang airfield, before deploying to Myitkyina to improve the facilities of an old British airfield recently recaptured from the Japanese.^[17]^[18]

Work continued through 1944 in late December it was opened for the transport of logistics. In January 1945, four of the black EABs (along with three white battalions) continued working on the now renamed Stilwell Road, improving and widening it. Indeed, one of these African American units was assigned the task of improving the road that extended into China.^[16]

Comments on the construction of the road

Winston Churchill called the project "an immense, laborious task, unlikely to be finished until the need for it has passed".

The British Field Marshal William Slim who commanded the British Fourteenth Army in India/Burma wrote of the Ledo Road:

Post World War II

After Burma was liberated, the road gradually fell into disrepair. In 1955 the Oxford-Cambridge Overland Expedition drove from London to Singapore and back. They followed the road from Ledo to Myitkyina and beyond (but not to China). The book First Overland written about this expedition by Tim Slessor (1957) reported that bridges were down in the section between Pangsau Pass and Shingbwiyang. In February 1958 the Expedition of Eric Edis and his team also used the road from Ledo to Myitkyina en route to Rangoon, Singapore and Australia. Ten months later they returned in the opposite direction. In his book about this expedition The Impossible Takes a Little Longer, Edis (2008) reports that they have removed a yellow sign with India/Burma on it from the Indian/Burmese border and that they have donated it to the Imperial War Museum in London. For many years, travel into the region was also restricted by the Government of India. Because of continuous clashes between insurgents (who were seeking shelter in Burma) and the Indian Armed Forces, India imposed harsh restrictions between 1962 and the mid-1990s on travel into Burma.

Since an improvement in relations between India and Myanmar, travel has improved and tourism has begun near Pangsayu Pass (at the Lake of No Return). Recent attempts to travel the full road have met with varying results. At present the Nampong-Pangsau Pass section is passable in four-wheel drive vehicles. The road on the Burmese side is now reportedly fit for vehicular traffic. Donovan Webster reached Shingbwiyang on wheels in 2001, and in mid-2005 veterans of the Burma Star Association were invited to join a "down memory lane" trip to Shingbwiyang organised by a politically well-connected travel agent. These groups successfully travelled the road but none made any comment on the political or human rights situation on Burma afterward.

Burmese from Pangsau village saunter nonchalantly across Pangsau Pass down to Nampong in India for marketing, for the border is open despite the presence of insurgents on both sides. There are Assam Rifles and Burma Army posts at Nampong and Pangsau respectively. But the rules for locals in these border areas do not necessarily apply to westerners. The governments of both countries keep careful watch on the presence of westerners in the border areas and the land border is officially closed. Those who cross without permission risk arrest or problems with smugglers/insurgents in the area.

Current state

In recent years, the Burmese government has focused on the reconstruction of the Ledo Road as an alternative to the existing Lashio-Kunming Burma Road. The Chinese government completed construction of the Myitkyina-Kambaiti section in 2007 and the Rangoon-based Yuzana Company started constructing the section between Myitkyina and Tanai.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}{{Update inline|date=March 2016}} India's Government, however, fears that the road may be useful to militants in North East India who have hideouts in Myanmar.^[20]^[21]^[22]

In 2010 the BBC described the road: "Much of the road has been swallowed up by jungle. It is barely passable on foot and is considered too dangerous to use by many because of the presence of Burmese and Indian ethnic insurgents in the area....At present the road from Myitkyina to the Chinese border - along with the brief Indian section - is usable."^[4]

In 2015, it was not possible to travel the Ledo Road due to border restrictions.^[23] In 2015, the Chinese section from Namyun village to Pangsau Pass in Burma was a "heavily rutted muddy track" through the jungle according to a BBC correspondent.^[23]

See also

Notes

1. ^Staff. The Stilwell Road {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013005441/http://www.tinsukia.nic.in/subpages/stilwell.html |date=13 October 2008 }}, District Administration, Tinsukia (Assam) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212063023/http://www.tinsukia.nic.in/index.asp |date=12 February 2007 }}, Cites Sri Surendra Baruah, Margherita, Retrieved 2008-10-01
2. ^Weidenburner. Ledo Road Signs {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519100609/http://ledoroad.home.comcast.net/Ledo_Signs.html |date=19 May 2007 }}
3. ^{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8194622.stm | work=BBC News | title=India not to reopen key WWII road | date=11 August 2009 | accessdate=2010-05-07 | first=Subir | last=Bhaumik}}
4. ^¹²{{cite news|last1=Bhaumik|first1=Subir|title=Will the famous Indian WWII Stilwell Road reopen?|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12269095|accessdate=11 March 2016|agency=BBC News}}
5. ^location of Ledo
6. ^¹Sherry, Mark D., China Defensive 1942-1945, United States Army Center of Military History, CBI Background. Chapter: "China Defensive"
7. ^¹Xu, [https://books.google.com/books?id=mpSkIrOCrQkC&printsec=frontcover&sig=ACfU3U2p7aviAU-v41uerU1XWf-uSLlcgw#PPA191,M1 p. 191]
8. ^The Ledo Road Cost - FORGOTTEN FACTS - China-Burma-India Theater of World War II
9. ^{{cite news | last = Sankar| first = Anand| coauthors = | title = On the road to China| work = | pages = | publisher = Business Standard| date = 14 February 2009| url = http://www.business-standard.com/article/beyond-business/on-the-road-to-china-108052401026_1.html| accessdate = 2015-05-16}}
10. ^The Ledo Road - THE GREATER COSTS - China-Burma-India Theater of World War II
11. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://beijing.usembassy-china.org.cn/ww2operationaloutline.html |title=U.S. Embassy Marks 60th Anniversary of Ledo Road |last=Bishop |first=Donald M. |date=2 February 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211143928/http://beijing.usembassy-china.org.cn/ww2operationaloutline.html |archive-date=2006-02-11 |website= |publisher=American Embassy in China |work=U.S. Embassy Press Briefing and Release |quote=}}
12. ^¹Schoenherr Steven,The Burma Front {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509060125/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/Pacific06b.html|date=9 May 2008}}, History Department at the University of San Diego
13. ^¹Tuchman, Barbara W. (1971). Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-45. Macmillan. p. 484
14. ^Tuchman, Barbara W. (1971). Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911-45. Macmillan. p. 376
15. ^Moser, [https://books.google.com/books?id=JCV6AAAAIAAJ&q=That's+not+a+river,+it's+the+Ledo+Road&pgis=1 p. 139]
16. ^¹Staff. EAB in China-Burma-India {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831075234/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1522 |date=31 August 2007 }}, National Museum of the U.S. Air Force {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224143113/http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/questions/topic.asp?id=1366 |date=24 December 2008 }}, Retrieved 2008-10-01
17. ^879th Airborne Engineers Official Battalion History declassified NND957710
18. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cbi-history.com/part_vi_879th_eng_batt.html|title=879th Engineer Battalion (aviation):Engineers by Glider to Myitkyina – Company A, 879th Engineers 17 May 1944|last=Zaitsoff|first=Mark P.|date=7 September 2010|editor-last=Goldblatt|editor-first=Gary|publisher=CBI Order of Battle, linages and history|accessdate=19 March 2012}}
19. ^Slim, start of Chapter XII: The Northern Front
20. ^Staff. Resident's homes on Ledo Road to move back 20 feet, Kachin News Group (KNG), 7 August 2008
21. ^Human Rights Documentation Unit, Burma Human Rights Yearbook 2007, National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma, September 2008. p. 214
22. ^http://ibnlive.in.com/news/stilwell-road-indochina-road-to-peace/163192-3.html
23. ^¹{{cite news|last1=Coomes|first1=Phil|title=The Stilwell Road 70 years on|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/in-pictures-33785650|accessdate=11 March 2016|agency=BBC|date=10 August 2015}}