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词条 Ambergris
释义

  1. Etymology

  2. Formation

  3. Physical properties

  4. Chemical properties

  5. Applications

     Legality 

  6. In popular culture

     Historical   Music   In literature  In film and TV 

  7. References

  8. Further reading

  9. External links

{{short description|Substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales}}{{other uses}}Ambergris ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|m|b|ər|g|r|iː|s|}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|m|b|ər|g|r|I|s|}}, {{lang-la|ambra grisea}}, {{lang-fro|ambre gris}}), ambergrease, or grey amber, is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of sperm whales.[1] Freshly produced ambergris has a marine, fecal odor. However, it acquires a sweet, earthy scent as it ages, commonly likened to the fragrance of rubbing alcohol without the vaporous chemical astringency.[2]

Ambergris has been very highly valued by perfumers as a fixative that allows the scent to last much longer, although it has been mostly replaced by synthetic ambroxan.[3] Dogs are known to be attracted to the smell of ambergris and are therefore sometimes used by ambergris searchers.[4]

Etymology

The word ambergris comes from the Old French "ambre gris" or "grey amber".[5][6] The word "amber" comes from the same source, but it has been applied almost exclusively to fossilised tree resins from the Baltic region since the late 13th century in Europe.

Formation

Ambergris is formed from a secretion of the bile duct in the intestines of the sperm whale, and can be found floating on the sea or washed up on the coast. It is also sometimes found in the abdomens of dead sperm whales.[5] Because the beaks of giant squids have been discovered within lumps of ambergris, scientists have theorized that the substance is produced by the whale's gastrointestinal tract to ease the passage of hard, sharp objects that it may have eaten. The sperm whale usually vomits these, but if one travels further down the gut, it will be covered in ambergris.[7][8]

Ambergris is usually passed in the fecal matter. It is speculated that an ambergris mass too large to be passed through the intestines is expelled via the mouth, leading to the reputation of ambergris as primarily coming from whale vomit.[9] Ambergris takes years to form. Christopher Kemp, the author of Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris, says that it is only produced by sperm whales, and only by an estimated one percent of them. Ambergris is rare; once expelled by a whale, it often floats for years before making landfall.[10] The very small chance of finding ambergris, and the legal ambiguity involved led perfume makers away from ambergris and led chemists on a quest to find viable alternatives.[11]

Ambergris is primarily found in the Atlantic Ocean and on the coasts of South Africa, Brazil, Madagascar, the East Indies, The Maldives, China, Japan, India, Australia, New Zealand, and the Molucca Islands. Most commercially collected ambergris comes from the Bahamas in the Atlantic, particularly New Providence. Fossilised ambergris from 1.75 million years ago has also been found.[12]

A {{convert|1.1|kg|adj=on}} lump of ambergris, found on a beach at Anglesey, Wales, was sold to a French buyer for £11,000 at an auction in Macclesfield, England, on 25 September 2015.[13] A {{convert|13|kg|adj=on}} piece of ambergris was found by two Omanis, washed up on a beach on the Fooshi shores of Sadah province in southern Oman, in November 2015.[14]

Physical properties

Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, usually weighing from 15 g (~½ oz) to 50 kg (110 pounds), sometimes more.[5] When initially expelled by or removed from the whale, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in colour (sometimes streaked with black), soft, with a strong fecal smell. Following months to years of photodegradation and oxidation in the ocean, this precursor gradually hardens, developing a dark grey or black colour, a crusty and waxy texture, and a peculiar odour that is at once sweet, earthy, marine, and animalic. Its smell has been generally described as a vastly richer and smoother version of isopropanol without its stinging harshness. In this developed condition, ambergris has a specific gravity ranging from 0.780 to 0.926. It melts at about 62 °C (143.6 °F) to a fatty, yellow resinous liquid; and at {{convert|100|C|0|abbr=on}} it is volatilised into a white vapour. It is soluble in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils.[5]

Chemical properties

Ambergris is relatively nonreactive to acid. White crystals of a terpene known as ambrein can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol, then allowing the resulting solution to cool. Breakdown of the relatively scentless ambrein through oxidation produces ambroxan and ambrinol, the main odor components of ambergris.

Ambroxan is now produced synthetically and used extensively in the perfume industry.[15]

Applications

Ambergris has been mostly known for its use in creating perfume and fragrance much like musk. Perfumes can still be found with ambergris around the world.[16] It is collected from remains found at sea and on beaches, although its precursor originates from the sperm whale, which is a vulnerable species.[17]

Ambergris has historically been used in food and drink. A serving of eggs and ambergris was reportedly King Charles II of England's favorite dish.[18] A recipe for Rum Shrub liqueur from the mid 19th century called for ambergris to be added to rum, almonds, cloves, cassia, and the peel of oranges in making a cocktail from the The English and Australian Cookery Book.[19] It has been used as a flavoring agent in Turkish coffee[20] and in hot chocolate in 18th century Europe.[21] The substance is considered an aphrodisiac in some cultures.[7]

Ancient Egyptians burned ambergris as incense, while in modern Egypt ambergris is used for scenting cigarettes.[22] The ancient Chinese called the substance "dragon's spittle fragrance".[23] During the Black Death in Europe, people believed that carrying a ball of ambergris could help prevent them from getting the plague. This was because the fragrance covered the smell of the air which was believed to be a cause of plague.

During the Middle Ages, Europeans used ambergris as a medication for headaches, colds, epilepsy, and other ailments.[23]

Legality

{{Main|International Whaling Commission#1982 moratorium}}

From the 18th to the mid-19th century, the whaling industry prospered. By some reports, nearly 50,000 whales, including sperm whales, were killed each year. Due to studies showing that the whale populations were being threatened, the International Whaling Commission instituted a moratorium on commercial whaling in 1982. Although ambergris is not harvested from whales, many countries also ban the trade of ambergris as part of the more general ban on the hunting and exploitation of whales.

Urine, faeces and ambergris (that has been naturally excreted by a sperm whale) are waste products not considered parts or derivatives of a CITES species and are therefore not covered by the provisions of the Convention.[24]

Illegal
  • Australia – Under federal law, the export and import of ambergris for commercial purposes is banned by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The various states and territories have additional laws regarding ambergris.[25]
  • United States – The possession and trade of ambergris is prohibited by the Endangered Species Act of 1973.[26]
Legal
  • United Kingdom[27]
  • France[27]
  • Switzerland[27]

In popular culture

{{In popular culture|date=July 2017}}

Historical

Ibn Battuta states, "I sent along with them all the things that I valued and the gems and ambergris..."[28]

Music

During part 4, Panacea, of the song "The Fountain of Lamneth" by Rush, the narrator catches the scent of ambergris.[29]

In literature

In chapter 91 of Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Stubb, one of the mates of the Pequod, fools the captain of a French whaler (Rose-bud) into abandoning the corpse of a sperm whale found floating in the sea. His plan is to recover the corpse himself in hopes that it contains ambergris. His hope proves well founded, and the Pequods crew recovers a valuable quantity of the substance.[30] Melville devotes the following chapter to a discussion of ambergris, with special attention to the irony that "fine ladies and gentlemen should regale themselves with an essence found in the inglorious bowels of a sick whale."[31]

In "A Romance of Perfume Lands or the Search for Capt. Jacob Cole", F. S. Clifford, October 1881, the last chapter concerns one of the novel's characters discovering an area of a remote island which contains large amounts of ambergris. He hopes to use this knowledge to help make his fortune in the manufacture of perfumes.[32]

In Chapter 17 of William Dampier's "A New Voyage Around the World" (1697), Dampier escapes to Nicobar Island for "a prospect of advancing a profitable trade for ambergris...and of gaining a considerable fortune..."

In “The Case of Smelly Nellie” from Encyclopedia Brown Tracks Them Down (1971), the case revolves around Bugs Meany and the Tigers stealing fifty pounds of ambergris from Smelly Nellie by claiming they found it on the ocean floor and rolling it onto the beach.

In film and TV

In the 1956 episode "Whale Gold" of the British television series The Buccaneers, a crew of eighteenth-century pirates led by Captain Dan Tempest (actor Robert Shaw) find large pieces of ambergris at sea and on a beach, discoveries that lead to quarrels and death due to "whale gold fever."

The plot of The Avengers 1963 episode "Killer Whale" revolves around an ambergris smuggling operation.[33]

The 1969 book The Lost Ones by Ian Cameron, later made into Disney's 1974 film The Island at the Top of the World depicts a dirigible trip to the 'Whale Graveyard' where they find so much ambergris that it becomes a point of contention.

In the Batman episode "Louie's Lethal Lilac Time" ({{date|1968-1-11}}), Louie the Lilac steals a large piece of ambergris from Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson, to use in his illegal perfume factory.

In "The Sixth Voyage of Sinbad the Sailor" in "The Arabian Nights" by Sir Richard Burton, Sinbad finds vast quantities of Ambergris after being shipwrecked on an unknown island after setting sail from Bassorāh.

Season 5, Episode 10 of Tales from the Crypt is entitled "Forever Ambergris," starring Roger Daltrey and Steve Buscemi.

In the 2001 film Hannibal, Hannibal Lecter sends Clarice Starling a letter which he writes while intentionally wearing a hand lotion containing ambergris, correctly assuming that this would lead her to discover his location in Florence, Italy, due to lotion utilizing ambergris being legal in only a few countries.

In the 2003 film The Far Side of the World, an adaptation of Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey Maturin Series, Carpenter's Mate Joseph Nagle notes that the French privateer The Acheron would be "...loaded with gold and ambergris and all the gems of Araby", indicating the relative rarity and considerable value of ambergris during the Age of Sail.

Ambergris plays a prominent role in the plot of the 2003 Futurama episode "Three Hundred Big Boys."[34] The episode guest-stars Roseanne Barr, who appears as a hologram of herself, reading the dictionary definition of "ambergris."[35]

In The 2007 film adaption of "Sweeney Todd", Beadle Bamford claims he uses ambergris as a cologne.

In the 2014 episode "Ambergris" of the animated television program Bob's Burgers, a lump of ambergris found on the beach plays an important role, as Louise, Tina, and Gene attempt to sell the ambergris illegally for $30,000.

The 2018 episode "Quartet" of Endeavour featured ambergris ("worth more than its weight in gold") being used as a way to pay enemy agents during the Cold War.

The 2018 episode "Ambergris" of Parfum featured ambergris ("costs 50,000 euros per kilo") being used as fragrance enhancer.

References

1. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/18871/ambergris |title=Ambergris |publisher=Britannica |accessdate=31 January 2013 }}
2. ^{{cite book | author=Burr, Chandler | title=The Emperor of Scent: A Story of Perfume, Obsession, and the Last Mystery of the Senses | year=2003 | location=New York | publisher=Random House | isbn=978-0-375-50797-7}}
3. ^Panten, J. and Surburg, H. 2016. Flavors and Fragrances, 3. Aromatic and Heterocyclic Compounds. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 1–45.
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ikonlondonmagazine.com/jovoy-paris-designed-for-fascinating-olfactory-experiences/ |title=Jovoy Paris ‘Designed’ for Fascinating Olfactory Experiences |website=Ikon London Magazine|accessdate=October 12, 2017}}
5. ^1 2 3 {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Ambergris|volume=1|page=794}}
6. ^{{cite journal|last=Wedgwood|first=Hensleigh|authorlink=Hensleigh Wedgwood|title=On False Etymologies|journal=Transactions of the Philological Society|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3924121;view=1up;seq=76|year=1855|issue=6|pages=66}}
7. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://press.uchicago.edu/books/excerpt/2012/kemp_floating.html|title=The Origin of Ambergris|publisher=}}
8. ^{{YouTube|-ChivtjDjh4}}
9. ^{{cite book |author1=William F. Perrin |author2=Bernd Wursig |author3=J. G.M. Thewissen|title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |year=2009 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=0080919936 |page=28 }}
10. ^{{cite book|last=Kemp|first=Christopher|title=Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0CKIxwLT-oC|year=2012|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-43036-2|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=F0CKIxwLT–oC&pg=PA12 12–13]}}
11. ^{{cite web | last=Daley | first=Jason | title=Your High-End Perfume Is Likely Part Whale Mucus | website=Smithsonian | date=14 April 2016 | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/your-high-end-perfume-likely-part-whale-mucus-180958767/ | access-date=6 August 2018}}
12. ^{{cite journal|last=Baldanza|first=Angela|first2=Roberto |last2=Bizzarri |first3=Federico |last3=Famiani |first4=Paolo |last4=Monaco |first5=Roberto |last5=Pellegrino |first6=Paola |last6=Sassi|title=Enigmatic, biogenically induced structures in Pleistocene marine deposits: A first record of fossil ambergris|journal=Geology|volume=41|issue=10|pages=1075|date=30 July 2013|doi=10.1130/G34731.1|url=http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/early/2013/07/30/G34731.1|bibcode=2013Geo....41.1075B}}
13. ^{{cite news|title=Ambergris found on Anglesey beach sells for £11,000|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-north-west-wales-34362556|accessdate=2016-10-31|work=BBC News|date=2015-09-25}}
14. ^{{cite news|last1=Al Mukrashi|first1=Fahad|title=Omanis offered Dh600,000 for prized ‘whale vomit’|url=http://www.gulfnews.com/news/gulf/oman/omanis-offered-dh600-000-for-prized-whale-vomit-1.1617933|accessdate=2016-10-31|work=Gulf News Oman|date=2015-11-11}}
15. ^{{cite web |url=http://perfumeshrine.blogspot.co.uk/2010/11/ambroxambroxan-modern-fascination-on.html |title=Ambrox/Ambroxan: a Modern Fascination on an Elegant Material |date=5 November 2010 |publisher=Perfume Shrine |accessdate=31 January 2013 }}
16. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/ambergris-treasure-of-the-deep-01122012.html |title=Ambergris, Treasure of the Deep |date=January 12, 2012 |first=Eric |last=Spitznagel |publisher=Bloomberg Businessweek |accessdate=31 January 2013 }}
17. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/41755/0 |title=Physeter macrocephalus |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |accessdate=31 January 2013 }}
18. ^{{cite book |author =Lord Macaulay |title=The History of England from the Accession of James II |year=1848 |publisher=Harper |isbn= |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1468 |volume=1 |chapter=IV |page=222 }}
19. ^{{cite book |last=Abbott |first=Edward |title=The English and Australian Cookery Book |date=1864}}
20. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.theguideistanbul.com/istanbul-historic-coffeehouses/ |title=The starting point of Turkish coffee: Istanbul's historic coffeehouses |website=The Istanbul Guide|date= |author= |accessdate= 26 October 2018}}
21. ^{{cite news|last1=Green|first1=Matthew|title=How the decadence and depravity of London's 18th century elite was fuelled by hot chocolate|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/articles/surprising-history-of-london-chocolate-houses/|work=The Daily Telegraph|accessdate=July 15, 2017|date=March 11, 2017}}
22. ^{{cite book |chapter=Ambergris |title=Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers, Technical Professionals, Purchasing and Production Managers, Technicians, and Supervisors |page=64 |last1=Brady |first1=George Stuart |last2=Clauser |first2=Henry R. |last3=Vaccari |first3=John A. |isbn=978-0-07-136076-0 |year=2002 |publisher=McGraw-Hill}}
23. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=strange-but-true-whale-waste-is-valuable |title=Strange but True: Whale Waste Is Extremely Valuable |date=April 26, 2007 |first=Cynthia |last=Graber |publisher=Scientific American |accessdate=31 January 2013}}
24. ^CITES CoP16 Com. II Rec. 2 (Rev. 1), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Sixteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties Bangkok (Thailand), 3–14 March 2013Summary record of the second session of Committee II
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/species/cetaceans/education/ambergris.html |title=Whale and Dolphin permits - Ambergris |publisher=Environment.gov.au |date=1979-06-28 |accessdate=2014-03-13}}
26. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/ambergris-treasure-of-the-deep-01122012.html#p2 |title=Ambergris, Treasure of the Deep |publisher=Businessweek |date=2012-01-12 |accessdate=2014-03-13}}
27. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=Ambergris: lucky, lucrative and legal?|url=http://us.whales.org/blog/2015/09/ambergris-lucky-lucrative-and-legal}}
28. ^{{cite book|last1=Battutah|first1=Ibn|title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah|date=2002|publisher=Picador|location=London|isbn=9780330418799|pages=249}}
29. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.rush.com/albums/caress-of-steel/|title=Caress of Steel {{!}} Rush.com|website=www.rush.com|language=en-CA|access-date=2018-04-14}}
30. ^Moby-Dick, Chapter 91 at Wikisource.
31. ^Moby-Dick, Chapter 92 at Wikisource.
32. ^{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/romanceofperfume00clifuoft|title=The Romance of Perfume|last=Perfumer|first=Clifford|publisher=Clifford, Perfumer|year=1875|isbn=|location=Boston|pages=284–295 (360–373 in the PDF)|quote=|access-date=January 31, 2017|via=Internet Archive}}
33. ^{{Citation|last=Mills|first=Kim|title=Killer Whale|date=1991-03-02|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0516856/|others=Patrick Macnee, Honor Blackman, Patrick Magee|accessdate=2018-01-23}}
34. ^{{cite web|url=http://theinfosphere.org/Three_Hundred_Big_Boys#Act_III:_.22The_loot.21_The_loot.21.21_The_loot_is_on_fire.21.21.22 |title=Three Hundred Big Boys - The Infosphere, the Futurama Wiki |publisher=Theinfosphere.org |accessdate=2014-03-13}}
35. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0584461/?ref_=nm_flmg_act_10|title=Futurama: Season 5, Episode 11 : Three Hundred Big Boys (15 June 2003)|publisher=IMDb.com|accessdate=2014-03-13}}

Further reading

  • {{cite journal |last1=Borschberg |first1=Peter |title=O comércio de âmbar asiático no início da época moderna (séculos XV–XVIII) |trans-title=The Asiatic Ambergris trade in the early modern period (15th to 18th century) |language=Portuguese |editor1-first=Carla Alferes |editor1-last=Pinto |journal=Oriente |location=Lisbon |publisher=Fundação Oriente |volume=8 |date=April 2004 |pages=3–25}} http://montalvoeascinciasdonossotempo.blogspot.sg/2011/10/peter-borschberg-o-comercio-de-ambar.html (accessed 21 August 2015)
  • {{cite journal |doi=10.5597/lajam00087 |title=The origin of ambergris |year=2006 |last1=Clarke |first1=Robert |journal=Latin American Journal of Aquatic Mammals |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=7–21}}
  • {{cite journal |first1=Karl H. |last1=Dannenfeldt |title=Ambergris: The Search for Its Origin |journal=Isis |pmid=6757176 |jstor=231442 |year=1982 |volume=73 |issue=268 |pages=382–97 |doi=10.1086/353040}}
  • {{cite journal |doi=10.1098/rstl.1724.0053 |title=An Essay upon the Natural History of Whales, with a Particular Account of the Ambergris Found in the Sperma Ceti Whale. In a Letter to the Publisher, from the Honourable Paul Dudley, Esq; F. R. S |year=1724 |last1=Dudley |first1=Paul |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society |volume=33 |issue=381–391 |pages=256–69 |jstor=103782 |bibcode=1724RSPT...33..256D}}
  • {{cite book |last=Kemp |first=Christopher |title=Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0CKIxwLT-oC |date=2012-05-15 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-43036-2}}
  • {{cite book |first1=Christopher |last1=Kemp |year=2012 |chapter=The Origin of Ambergris |chapterurl=http://www.press.uchicago.edu/books/excerpt/2012/kemp_floating.html |title=Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |pages=8–16 |isbn=978-0-226-43036-2}}
  • {{cite journal |doi=10.1021/ci034203t |title=Combinatorial QSAR of Ambergris Fragrance Compounds |year=2004 |last1=Kovatcheva |first1=Assia |last2=Golbraikh |first2=Alexander |last3=Oloff |first3=Scott |last4=Xiao |first4=Yun-De |last5=Zheng |first5=Weifan |last6=Wolschann |first6=Peter |last7=Buchbauer |first7=Gerhard |last8=Tropsha |first8=Alexander |journal=Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=582–95|citeseerx=10.1.1.411.7708 }}
  • {{cite journal |doi=10.1002/hlca.19800630721 |title=Stereochemistry-Odor Relationships in Enantiomeric Ambergris Fragrances |year=1980 |last1=Ohloff |first1=Günther |last2=Vial |first2=Christian |last3=Wolf |first3=Hans Richard |last4=Job |first4=Kurt |last5=Jégou |first5=Elise |last6=Polonsky |first6=Judith |last7=Lederer |first7=Edgar |journal=Helvetica Chimica Acta |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=1932–46}}

External links

{{Wiktionary}}
  • Natural History Magazine Article (from 1933): Floating Gold -- The Romance of Ambergris
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20060201072605/http://netstrider.com/documents/ambergris/ Ambergris - A Pathfinder and Annotated Bibliography]
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20060302082728/http://www.cropwatch.org/amber.htm On the chemistry and ethics of Ambergris]
{{Whaling}}

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