“Military history of Asian Americans”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

At the beginning of the 20th century, Asian Americans began to attend U.S. military academies, and the first Asian Americans were awarded the Medal of Honor.^[6]^[7] World War I saw Asian Americans serving as "non-whites" in the National Army.^[8] After World War I, Asian American service fell into obscurity until World War II when significant contributions by Japanese,^[9]^[1] Chinese,^[11] Filipino,^[12] and Korean Americans^[13] were documented.

With the desegregation of the U.S. military in 1948, segregated Asian American units ceased to exist, and Asian Americans served in integrated armed forces.^[14] Asian American combatants in the Korean and Vietnam conflicts were awarded the Medal of Honor, and Asian Americans have continued to serve into the present day.^[2]^[3]

19th century

War of 1812

The first official recorded history of Asian Americans fighting on behalf of the U.S. occurred in 1815 in the War of 1812.^[1]

During the War of 1812, General Andrew Jackson recorded that "Manilamen" had fought under his general command in defense of New Orleans, under the direct command of Jean Baptiste Lafitte.^[4] Following the war, at least one Filipino American, Augustin Feliciano, continued to serve in the U.S. Navy.^[5] From the end of the War of 1812 to the beginning of the American Civil War, Asian Americans were not recorded in the annals of U.S. military history.

American Civil War

Many more Asian Americans served in the forces of both sides of the Civil War, being born in various places including Amoy, Batavia, Bombay,^[6] Burmah, Calcutta, Canton,^[7] Changchow,^[8] Ceylon, China, East Indies, Goa, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Java, Lahore, Maulmain, Mauritius, Philippine Islands, Siam, and Singapore.^[23] The largest proportion of Asian American volunteers in the Civil War came from China, India, and the Philippine Islands.^[9]

Chinese Americans during the American Civil War

In 1861, a Chinese American by the name of John Tomney joined the New York Infantry,^[16] eventually dying of wounds received at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863.^[17]^[18]^[19]

During the Civil War, the Bunker family, of Mount Airy, North Carolina, like a minority of Southerners, were supporters of the Confederacy.^[47] Christopher Wren Bunker and his brother Stephen Bunker, were the eldest sons of Chang and Eng Bunker, the original "Siamese Twins", whose fathers who were of Chinese ancestry from Siam and married white women joined different Confederate cavalry units.^[26] In 1864, Christopher Wren Bunker was captured, and was sent to Camp Chase.^[27]

Filipino Americans during the American Civil War

Filipino American, Felix Cornelius Balderry, served in the Union's Michigan 11th Infantry.^[31] Other Filipino Americans served in the U.S. Navy aboard the Little Ada, the Conemaugh, and other ships.^[32]^[33]

There are accounts of Filipino Americans serving in Louisiana with the Confederacy during the Civil War;^[34] one served aboard the C.S.S. Alabama,^[35] and some served in the Louisiana Zouaves.^[36]^[37]

19th century Asian American military academy graduates

In the late 1860s Asians were accepted into the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. Matsumura Junzo was the first to graduate, doing so as part of the class 1873.^[38]^[39] Matsumura was a foreign national, though, and like the other Asian graduates who attended around this time who went on to serve their own nations' militaries, upon graduation he served in the Imperial Japanese Navy, eventually reaching the rank of captain.^[38] Nearly forty years passed before the first Asian American U.S. nationals followed in the footsteps of these foreign nationals and were accepted into the various U.S. military academies.

Spanish–American War

Another lull in recordings of Asian American service followed the end of the Civil War until the Spanish–American War. When the U.S.S. Maine sank in Havana Harbor, seven of the casualties were Japanese Americans and one was a Chinese American.^[5]^[40] Later in the war it was recorded that Japanese Americans served aboard U.S. warships in the Battle of Manila Bay;^[17] the Philippine–American War, previously known as the Philippine Insurrection,^[41] followed.

20th century

Philippine–American War and Moro Rebellion

In 1901, the Philippine Constabulary^[42] and Philippine Scouts^[43] were initially founded to assist the U.S. against the forces of the First Philippine Republic and the insurgency that followed after its collapse.^[44] That same year President William McKinley signed an executive order to allow 500 Filipinos to enlist in the U.S. Navy.^[45] From these routes of enlistment came the first Asian American recipients of the Medal of Honor. Private Jose Nisperos, a Philippine Scout, protected his party from Moros; for this action, he received the Medal of Honor in 1911.^[46] In 1915, Fireman Second Class Telesforo Trinidad, along with Ensign Robert Webster Cary, was awarded the Medal of Honor for saving fellow crewmembers when the boiler of the U.S.S. San Diego exploded.^[47] As of 2011, Trinidad has been the only Asian American recipient of the naval version of the Medal of Honor.^[48] During the Presidency of William Howard Taft, Filipino Stewards began to serve in the White House, a practice that would continue into the end of the 20th Century, to include during the Presidency of Bill Clinton.^[49]

20th century Asian American military academy graduates

Mexican Expedition

In the early 20th century, while the rest of the world was engulfed in the depths of World War I,^[54] the U.S. was looking to its south. Mexico had been embroiled in a civil war since 1910, and in 1916 the violence spilt north over the border when Pancho Villa raided Columbus, New Mexico, killing 16 Americans.^[55] This culminated with a U.S. response, officially known as the Mexican Expedition, led by Major General John Pershing.^[56] A large number Chinese Mexicans assisted U.S. forces in Mexico during the expedition and upon its completion in early 1917, they were threatened with hanging by Villa. Despite the provisions of the Chinese Exclusion Act, Pershing sought permission for these people to be allowed to resettle in the U.S. A total of 527 eventually entered the country, settling mostly in San Antonio, and they later became known as "Pershing's Chinese".^[57]

World War I

In April 1917, the U.S. entered World War I on the side of the Allies.^[59] The U.S. Insular Government of the Philippine Islands created its own national guard units to join the effort, but did not see combat.^[60] The units were demobilized at Camp Thomas Claudio in 1918.^[61] Within the United States, a draft was started, and alongside Hispanic and Native Americans, Asian Americans were drafted as "non-whites" filling out the "white quota" in the National Army. The majority of Asian Americans did not see combat.^[62] An Indian American, from British colonial India, Sergeant Bhagat Singh Thind served in the U.S. Army was stationed at Camp Lewis, Washington in 1918. Thind a Sikh was the first U.S. serviceman to be allowed for religious reasons to wear a turban as part of their military uniform.^[58] A few saw combat. Private Tomas Mateo Claudio, who had studied at the University of Nevada and became the first, and only, Filipino American to die during the war, being killed at Château-Thierry in 1918;^[63] Private Henry Chinn who was killed in action in the Argonne Forest while serving in the "Lost Battalion";^[64] Sergeant Sing Kee, another member of the Lost Battalion, who was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross;^[65] and Sergeant Major Tokutaro Nishimura Slocum who served in the 328th Infantry Regiment, 82d Infantry Division.^[66] In the Navy, the number of enlisted Filipinos peaked at more than 5,700 by the end of the war.^[67] Several thousand Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Filipinos eventually served in the U.S. military during World War I;^[68] they were later allowed to become naturalized citizens,^[69] overcoming numerous legal obstacles.^[66]^[70]

Interwar period

During the interwar period U.S. forces were involved in several minor actions, including the Russian Civil War and multiple events in the Caribbean that have since become known as the Banana Wars; also, the Yangtze Patrol was directly and indirectly affected by the Second Sino-Japanese War and other events. Between 1918 and 1933, at least 3,900 Filipino Americans served in the U.S. Navy at any given time as mess stewards, having largely replaced African Americans in that rating.^[71] Up to World War I, Filipino sailors were able to serve in a range of occupations in the U.S. Navy; however, after World War I, a rule restricted Filipinos to the ratings of officer's steward and mess attendant.^[72] These restrictions did not extend to the Insular Force, which was limited to 500 individuals from Guam or the Philippines.^[73]

In 1934, Gordon Pai'ea Chung-Hoon became the first Asian American U.S. citizen to graduate from the Naval Academy,^[38] and the first Asian American West Point graduate, Wing Fook Jung, graduated in 1940.^[74] In 1940, Japanese Americans were the largest ethnicity of Asian Americans, followed by (in order of population) Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, Hindu Americans, and Korean Americans.^[75]

In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War began. A Chinese American, Arthur Chin, had gone to China in 1934 and joined the Republic of China Air Force, and flew as a fighter pilot. During the war Chin becoming the first American flying ace of World War II, with eight victories. He was later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the Air Medal.^[76]

In September 1939, war broke out in Europe following the German invasion of Poland.^[77] The U.S. officially remained neutral, but Americans became involved in combat while serving in other countries' militaries in units such as the Flying Tigers in China and the Eagle Squadrons that served with the Royal Air Force shortly after the Battle of Britain;^[78] U.S. forces also provided logistic support through the cash and carry program, and by undertaking convoy escort duties in the Atlantic.^[79] Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. officially declared war,^[80] and from that point on Asian Americans were on the front lines as U.S. civilians. Asian Americans from Oahu, including Japanese Americans, assisted with aid efforts following the attack.^[81] On the other side of the Pacific Ocean, Philippine Commonwealth forces, under U.S. command since July 1941, prepared for an attack that would come nine hours later.^[82]

World War II

Japanese Americans

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans in the Hawaii National Guard activated and began to guard the beaches, clear rubble, donate blood and aid the wounded but three days later, they were disarmed because of their ancestry. The next day, however, they were authorized to rearm, but an uneasy tension lasted until 5 June 1942.^[83] At the same time, Japanese Americans who had been undertaking the ROTC program at the University of Hawaii,^[84] and who had been activated in the Hawaii Territorial Guard,^[85] were discharged on 19 January 1942.^[86] Many of these discharged soldiers formed a Corps of Engineers auxiliary, known as the "Varsity Victory Volunteers", in February 1942.^[87] On 5 June 1942, 1,400 Nisei of the Hawaii National Guard shipped out from Hawaii bound for Oakland and on 12 June, after docking, they were formed into the 100th Infantry Battalion.^[88] Afterwards, all Japanese American men, not already in the military, were classified as enemy aliens; this policy was reversed in 1943.^[89]

Eight months later the decision was made to raise an all-Nisei regiment, known as the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Progress was slow at first, and another four months passed before the 442nd began training; two months after that, though, the 100th shipped out to Europe.^[120] Initially, the notion of employing Japanese American soldiers was rejected by General Dwight D. Eisenhower's staff at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, but they were eventually accepted by Lieutenant General Mark Clark's Fifth Army.^[89] While the 442nd was training in the U.S., the 100th sustained heavy losses, eventually earning the title the "Purple Heart Battalion."^[90] On 26 June 1944, two weeks after the 442nd arrived in Europe, the two Nisei units combined to form one single unit, but those who had been a part of the 100th wanted to keep their numerical designation, so they replaced the regiment's 1st Battalion. Keeping with the policy at the time, the unit was segregated,^[91] and large number of the other members of the 442nd RCT were previously interned Japanese Americans from the continental United States, commanded by mostly white officers.^[92] The combat chronicle of the regiment became a highly storied one, resulting in it becoming one of the most decorated units in the European Theater,^[93] taking part in numerous actions in Italy, France and Germany, including the liberation of Dachau concentration camp.^[94]

The 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit for its size and length of service in the history of American warfare.^[95] The 4,000 men who initially made up the unit in April 1943 had to be replaced nearly 2.5 times. In total, about 14,000 men served, earning 9,486 Purple Hearts. The unit was awarded eight Presidential Unit Citations (five earned in one month).^[96]{{rp|201}}

Additionally, Japanese Americans also contributed to the war effort in the Pacific Front serving in the Military Intelligence Service, helping with the decoding of Japanese intelligence and the rebuilding of occupied Japan;^[97] the first Asian American women to enter the U.S. military served within this unit through the Women's Army Corps.^[98] More than a dozen volunteers from the 442nd were selected to join the Office of Strategic Services and were selected for service in India and Burma, where they conducted covert operations, translation, interrogation, and signal intelligence.^[99] Over 33,000 Japanese Americans served in the military during World War II.^[89] Upon returning home, Japanese American service members found old prejudices remained.^[89]

In 1946, one of the 442nd's soldiers, PFC Sadao Munemori, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during the regiment's service in Italy. His award was one of two made to Asian Americans during, or in the immediate aftermath of, the war, and the only one made to a Japanese American.^[100] However, in 2000, after a review of other medals awarded to the 442nd, 21 were elevated to Medals of Honor.^[101] One of those 21 was presented to Hawai{{okina}}i Senator, and former Captain, Daniel K. Inouye.^[81] On 5 October 2010, Congress created the Congressional Gold Medal recognizing the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the 100th Infantry Battalion, as well as the 6,000 Japanese Americans who served in the Military Intelligence Service during the war.^[102]

Chinese Americans

It has been estimated that between 12,000^[103] and 20,000^[104] Chinese American men, representing up to 22 percent of the men in their portion of the U.S. population, served during World War II.^[105] Of those serving about 40 percent were not citizens,^[4] and unlike Japanese and Filipino Americans, 75 percent served in non-segregated units.^[4] Chinese Americans distinguished themselves from Japanese Americans, and suffered less discrimination.^[106] A quarter of those would serve in the U.S. Army Air Forces, some of which were sent to the Chinese-Burma-India theater for service with the 14th Air Service Group^[107] and the Chinese-American Composite Wing.^[145] Another 70 percent would go on to serve in the U.S. Army in various units, including the 3rd, 4th, 6th, 32nd and 77th Infantry Divisions.^[105] Prior to the war, the U.S. Navy had recruited Chinese Americans but they had been restricted to serve only as stewards;^[108] this continued until May 1942, when restrictions ceased and they were allowed to serve in other ratings.^[108] In 1943, Chinese American women were accepted into the Women's Army Corps in the Military Intelligence Service.^[98] They were also recruited for service in the Army Air Force, with a few later becoming civilian Women Airforce Service Pilots.^[98]^[109]

Filipino Americans

From the beginning, the Philippines was on the front lines of the new war, as it was attacked shortly after Pearl Harbor. Under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, initially plans were made to defend all of the islands,^[111] but following the Japanese landings on Luzon, the US reinstated War Plan Orange and a hasty withdrawal to the Bataan Peninsula followed,^[112] denying Japan the use of Manila Bay.^[113] In March 1942, under orders from President Franklin D. Roosevelt, MacArthur departed the Philippines.^[114] In April 1942, Major General Edward P. King surrendered his force as they could no longer keep up a sustainable defense.^[115] Of the 75,000 that surrendered, about 63,000 were Filipinos,^[116] and a thousand were Chinese Filipinos.^[117] Forced to march to San Fernando, Pampanga, in what later came to be called the Bataan Death March, between 5,000 and 10,000 Filipinos died along the way.^[118] A smaller force held out at Fort Mills; however, after an assault, Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright surrendered the USAFFE forces that remained in the Philippines in May 1942.^[119] Of those who surrendered, 23 were Filipino officers who had graduated from West Point; Japanese forces executed six of these Filipino prisoners of war, including Vicente Lim, who had by then reached the rank of brigadier general.^[120]

In the U.S., Filipinos were initially blocked from enlisting, until the laws were revised a day before Japan had begun its invasion back in the Philippines.^[121] Of the Filipinos who lived in California, two-fifths, or sixteen thousand Filipinos, attempted to enlist into the U.S. Army.^[122] Some would serve in non-segregated units,^[123] yet a segregated infantry battalion was established, which continued to grow and at its peak was split into two units known as the 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments.^[124] These soldiers were subjected to discrimination during their time training at Camp Beale and Fort Ord, sometimes being mistaken for Japanese Americans when off base.^[125] Nevertheless, these units would serve with distinction similar to that of the 442d Infantry Regiment, although their deeds were not as well documented or widely known.^[5]^[126] By the end of the war, a total of 50,000 decorations, awards, medals, ribbons, certificates, commendations and citations had been awarded to personnel assigned to these two regiments for their service in the New Guinea and Philippines campaigns.^[127]

Back in the Philippines, some individual service members and units refused to heed orders to surrender. They began a guerilla campaign to resist the Japanese occupation and were later joined by paroled Filipino USAFFE soldiers, as well as Filipino civilians, and other Allied forces that had been inserted into the islands.^[128] Allied forces returned to the Philippines in significant numbers during the Battle of Leyte. These included the Filipino infantry units which had been reduced in size from their peak.^[129] Later that year the Philippine Division was reconstituted,^[130] and in 1945 those members who elected to remain in the Philippines at the end of the war were transferred to the PCAUS.^[124] In all approximately 142,000 Filipinos served during World War II.^[131]^[132] When recognized guerrillas are taken into account,^[133] the number of Filipinos who served increases to over 250,000,^[134] and possibly up to over 400,000.^[135] This number though is smaller than that recognized for serving in World War II by the Philippines.^[136]

Korean Americans

After a treaty was signed in 1882, Koreans had begun migrating to the U.S.^[17] This came to an end when Japan annexed Korea in 1910.^[142] When the war began, Korean Americans were treated as enemy aliens,^[142] although this changed in 1943, when they were exempted from enemy alien status.^[143] About 100 enlisted in the U.S. Army over the course of the war,^[144] some of whom served as translators.^[145] Over a hundred joined the California National Guard in Los Angeles alone and formed a unit that became known as the "Tiger Brigade".^[146] Young-Oak Kim, who had initially been rejected by the Army before being drafted, served as an enlisted soldier in the engineers until he was selected for commissioning in 1943. He went on to serve in the mainly Japanese American 442nd Infantry Regiment,^[147] and he was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions at the Battle of Anzio.^[148] The only Korean American to be awarded that medal during the war,^[149] he also received a Silver Star and Purple Heart for actions earlier in the campaign.^[148] Fred Ohr, who initially enlisted as a trooper in the 116th Cavalry in 1938, became the only Korean American fighter ace of World War II,^[150] shooting down a total of six enemy aircraft and eventually rising to command the 52nd Fighter Group's 2d Fighter Squadron in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations.^[151] As of 8 March 2012, he is the only Korean American to achieve the status of ace,^[152] and for his actions, Ohr received several medals including the Silver Star with one bronze oak leaf cluster.^[150]

Cold War

Post World War II

After the surrender of Japan, World War II came to an end, and the U.S. military began to demobilize. Millions of service-members were transported home, including the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. In 1946, the regiment was reviewed by President Truman who awarded them their seventh Distinguished Unit Citation. They were subsequently deactivated, but they were reorganized a year later as part of the U.S. Army Reserve.^[153] That same year, Truman signed the Rescission Act of 1946, which denied Filipinos who served during World War II in the Commonwealth military and guerrillas, benefits that were afforded to other veterans.^[154] With the consent of the Philippine government, 50,000 Philippine Scouts were authorized by Congress, retained, and recruited.^[155] As part of the Philippine Division, this force undertook occupation duty on Okinawa until 1947,^[156] when the Philippine Scouts were disbanded by presidential order after Truman came to view them as a mercenary organization.^[155] In 1947, the signing of the U.S.-Philippine Military Bases Agreement formalized Filipino enlistment in the U.S. Navy without immigrant credentials.^[157] In 1948, Truman ordered the desegregation of the U.S. military.^[158]

Korean War

Following Truman's order for the integration of the U.S. military, the majority of segregated Asian American units were disbanded by 1951. Many individuals continued to serve in integrated units following desegregation, although the exact number of Asian Americans who served during the Korean War has not been determined.^[159] Despite the official acceptance of the desegregation policy, some units, including the 100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry Regiment, and the 5th Regimental Combat Team, retained strong racial ties, with a predominant number of Asian Americans serving in these units.^[159]^[160] Of the 36,572 who died during the Korean War, 241 were Asian Americans.^[161]

One Asian American received the Medal of Honor for actions during the Korean War. This went to Japanese American Corporal Hiroshi Miyamura of the 7th Infantry Regiment;^[162] the awarding of the medal was initially made in secret, as at the time Miyamura was being held by North Koreans as a prisoner of war.^[163] Three brothers, Kurt Chew-Een Lee (the first Chinese American Marine officer), Chew-Mon Lee (an army infantry officer), and Chew-Fan Lee (an army medical service officer), all served in different units during the conflict and were awarded the Navy Cross, Distinguished Service Cross, and Bronze Star Medal respectively.^[164] Young-Oak Kim, having reenlisted and promoted to major, became the first ethnic minority to command a regular combat battalion, the 1st of the 31st Infantry.^[165] Walter Tsukamoto, who was first commissioned in 1927 and entered active duty in 1943, was sent from occupation duty in Japan to Korea in 1950 and was promoted to lieutenant colonel, the first Asian American to achieve that rank in the Army Judge Advocate General's Corps, served as the senior ranking judge advocate for X Corps and was awarded two Bronze Star Medals for his service in Korea.^[166]

Vietnam War

During the Vietnam War 35,000 Asian Americans served as part of the more than eight million U.S. service personnel that were deployed to South Vietnam,^[167] in fully integrated units.^[168] Three of them were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor, including Corporal Terry Kawamura who was, as of March 2014, the last Asian American to receive that medal. During the conflict, in addition to the Asian American personnel that served in conventional units, the Army also formed a special forces team of Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, and Native American Rangers called Team Hawaii, as they could pass for Vietnamese and conduct long range reconnaissance.^[169] Discrimination and racism continued to be experience by Asian Americans who served during the conflict. Their loyalty was questioned,^[167] and during basic training they were sometimes described as being similar to the Viet Cong.^[170] In country, some were fired upon when mistaken for the Viet Cong,^[171] and some had medical care delayed after being mistaken for North Vietnamese.^[172] Additionally, the Viet Cong especially targeted Asian American service members, sometimes putting a price on their heads.^[169] Proportionally, Asian Americans suffered less casualties compared to other ethnic groups in Vietnam,^[173] with a total of 139 Asian American servicemen dying during the conflict.^[161]^[174]

Many other then-future Asian Americans serve the military out of its normal ranks during the conflict. These included groups such as the Hmong and Laotians who fought alongside American service members in the Laotian Civil War, Vietnamese Americans who fought as members of the South Vietnam's armed forces, and Montagnard (also known as Degar) who assisted American forces.^[175]

Throughout the war, Filipino American sailors remained restricted to the rating of steward, with 80% of the almost seventeen thousand Filipino American sailors being stewards.^[176] In 1970, there were more Filipinos serving in the U.S. Navy than there were in the Philippine Navy;^[177] that same year, the number of Filipinos recruited into the United States Navy was reduced from the thousands per year down to 35 a month, while Filipinos re-enlistment rates were 95% (which made them eligible for naturalization).^[178] The rating restriction ended in 1973, after the U.S. Senate investigated civil rights issues in the U.S. Navy and opened all ratings to Filipino Americans.^[179] In the White House, Filipinos Navy stewards, continued to serve as valets after the restriction was lifted,^[180] as late as into the 1990s.^[181] A few years later, in 1976, there were over seventeen thousand Filipino Americans in the U.S. Navy, including just under a hundred officers.^[45]^[182] By 1989, Asian Americans made up approximately 2.3 percent of the total armed services, slightly greater than their proportion of the total U.S. population at that time (1.6 percent).^[183]

Persian Gulf War

During the Persian Gulf War, many Asian Americans served in the U.S. military, with some filling senior officer positions,^[184] including Major General John Fugh who was promoted to the position of Army Judge Advocate General during the conflict.^[185] One Asian American service member died during the conflict.^[174]

In 1992, the U.S. Navy stopped recruiting Filipino nationals due to the end of the 1947 Military Bases Agreement.^[186]

21st century

Recent trends show that Asian Americans, particularly those from California, are enlisting at rates greater than their proportion of population; they are more likely to take up non-combat jobs.^[187] In 2009, the Army had Asian Americans serving as 4.4 percent of its commissioned officers, and 3.5 percent of its enlisted personnel.^[3] In 2008, Filipinos made up the largest immigrant population servicing in the U.S. Military, with Korean immigrants also serving in significant numbers.^[188] In 2010, Asian Americans made up 3.7 percent of active duty service members, mostly in the Army and Navy, and 3.9 percent of the officers.^[189] In 2012, there were about 65,000 immigrants serving in the U.S. armed forces; of those, about 23 percent were from the Philippines.^[190] Due to the numerous Filipinos serving in the Navy, when seen together, they've been described as the "Filipino Mafia".^[191] {{as of|2018}}, Filipinos made up the largest immigrant population serving in the U.S. Military.^[192] That same year, it was found that Asian Americans are over represented in the military compared to their proportion of the total population, and were increasingly choosing to become commissioned officers over choosing to enlist.^[193] Yet in 2013, it was found that Asian Americans are under represented in the Marine Corps, leading to a targeted effort to recruit more Asian Americans into the Corps.^[194]

War on Terrorism

Afghanistan War

Asian American Marines were part of the first conventional units to enter into Afghanistan in late 2001;^[197] including Pakistani American marine Lieutenant Colonel Asad A. Khan.^[198] Khan would return to Afghanistan in command of 1st Battalion 6th Marines in 2004;^[199]^[200] only to be later relieved of command.^[200]^[201] In 2011, Private Danny Chen and Lance Corporal Harry Lew both committed suicide in Afghanistan following hazing;^[202] prosecution of several of their unit members followed.^[203] Also in 2011, Petty Officer, third class Jonathan Kong, as a corpsman risked his life to save Corporal Michael Dawers who had been shot in a battle near the village of Kotozay; in 2014, Kong was awarded a Silver Star for his actions in 2011^[204]

Iraq War

Hundreds of Asian Americans have deployed to Iraq out of the 59,000 plus that are serving in active duty as of May 2009,^[205] with one study stating that 2.6 percent have been Asian American.^[206] The 100th Infantry Battalion (USAR) was activated in 2004 for its first deployment in Iraq,^[207] their first activation since the Vietnam War.^[208] At the end of that deployment the unit was authorized to wear the 442nd's shoulder sleeve insignia as a combat patch, the first time this had occurred since World War II.^[209] The 100th Infantry Battalion was activated, and deployed to Iraq, for second time from 2008 to 2009.^[210] With Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn having ended, 78 Asian American service members died during the conflict.^[211]

Leadership

The first Asian American general was Brigadier General Albert Lyman,^[212] who was part Chinese and Hawaiian American. He was followed by Rear Admiral Gordon Chung-Hoon, the first Asian American flag officer.^[213] The highest ranked is former Secretary of Veteran Affairs Eric Shinseki,^[215] who was a four-star general, and Army Chief of Staff.^[216]

In recent years, Asian Americans have been significantly overrepresented at the military academies compared to their share of the national population. Although Asian/Pacific Islander Americans are 3.49% of the national population aged 18–24,^[217] they are about 9–10% of the classes of 2014 at West Point,^[218] the Naval Academy,^[219] and the Air Force Academy.^[220]

In popular culture

The following television shows, movies, songs, and operas have depicted events that relate to this article:

See also

Minority military history

Asian American military units

Notes

1. ^{{cite journal |year=2012 |title=Nisei served in U.S. Army Air Corps, Navy, Coast Guard, Marine Corps, and Merchant Marines during World War II |author=James McIlwain |journal=JAVA Advocate |volume=XX |issue=3 |pages=7 |publisher=Japanese American Veterans Association |url=http://javadc.org/media/document/java-advocate/JAVA-Advocate-Fall-2012.pdf |accessdate=21 January 2013 }}
2. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/moh/koreanwar.html |title=Korean War Recipients |author= |work=Asian Pacific Americans in the United States Army |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=22 January 2013}}
{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/moh/vietnamwar.html |title=Vietnam War Recipients |author= |work=Asian Pacific Americans in the United States Army |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=22 January 2013}}
3. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.2k.army.mil/downloads/FY09%20Army%20Profile.pdf |title=FY09 Army Profile |author=Dr. Betty D. Maxfield |date=30 September 2009 |work=Headquarters, Department of the Army |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=27 April 2011}}
4. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶{{cite news |first=Rudi |last=Williams |title=DoD's Personnel Chief Gives Asian-Pacific American History Lesson |url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=16498 |work=American Forces Press Service |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |date=3 June 2005 |accessdate=26 August 2009}}
5. ^{{cite book |title=Filipinos of Greater Philadelphia |last=Silva |first=Eliseo Art Arambulo |last2=Peralt |first2=Victorina Alvarez |year=2012 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=9780738592695 |page=9 |accessdate=20 August 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsDpsSeBO3kC&lpg=PA9&ots=xg2o22yrNm&dq=%22The%20Largest%20Colony%20of%20Filipinos%20in%20America%22&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Largest%20Colony%20of%20Filipinos%20in%20America%22&f=false }}
6. ^The city of Bombay was, and under its modern name of Mumbai is, one of the great ports of India. During the British Raj, it was the seat of government of the Bombay Presidency. It is possible that "Bombay" in the source refers not only to the city itself, but also to that much larger region which it controlled.
7. ^Canton has multiple meanings. The source is unspecific, but only two of the meanings relate to Asia (more precisely, to China). Those are the old romanized names of the city of Canton (modern Guangzhou), which was the capital of the province of Canton (modern Guangdong). It is unclear whether the narrower or the broader meaning was intended.
8. ^There are two cities, both in China, whose names were at one time romanized as Changchow: Changzhou in Jiangsu Province and Zhangzhou in Fujian Province. Both are sizable port cities. The source does not say which one, or both, was meant.
9. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
10. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/archive/gett/getteducation/bcast04/sold-bios3.htm |title=Soldiers Biographies, Page 3 |author= |work=Gettysburg National Military Park |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=16 January 2011}}
11. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/history/civilwar.html |title=Civil War |author= |work= |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=16 January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624063104/http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/history/civilwar.html |archivedate=24 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
12. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.npca.org/stateoftheparks/appomattox/APCO-full-report-web.pdf |title=Appomattox Court House |author=Daniel Saxton |year=2008 |work=State of the Parks |publisher=National Parks Conservation Association |accessdate=16 January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928133515/http://www.npca.org/stateoftheparks/appomattox/APCO-full-report-web.pdf |archivedate=28 September 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
13. ^¹{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: a political, social, and military history |last=Stephen Heidler |first=David |author2=Jeanne T. Heidler |author3=David J. Coles |year=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-04758-5 |page=434 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdrYv7S60fgC&pg=PA434&lpg=PA434&dq=Corporal+Joseph+Pierce+chinese&source=bl&ots=lX0CyOQyHC&sig=8ReYYt6MEl64HDECB6WLcho4Uak&hl=en&ei=CoozTcHRGorCsAPn5ozWBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=Corporal%20Joseph%20Pierce%20chinese&f=false |accessdate=16 January 2011}}
14. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.gdg.org/Research/People/jpierce.html |title=Joseph Pierce, |author= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=16 January 2011}}
15. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
16. ^¹²{{cite web|last=Williams |first=Rudi |title=Asian/Pacific American Military Timeline |url=http://www.chcp.org/memorialday.html |year=1999 |work=Memorial Day, 1999 |publisher=Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute |accessdate=26 August 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130063434/http://www.chcp.org/memorialday.html |archivedate=30 January 2009 |df= }}
17. ^¹²{{cite news |first=Rudi |last=Williams |title=An Asian Pacific American Timeline |url=http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=43031 |work=American Forces Press Service |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |date=19 May 1999 |accessdate=27 August 2009 |quote=21-1861 Chinese American John Tomney joins New York Infantry, later dies of wounds at Battle of Gettysburg (1863).}}
18. ^{{cite news |title=China at Gettysburg |author= |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1863/07/12/news/china-at-gettysburg.html?scp=23&sq=Gettysburg&st=p |newspaper=New York Times |date=12 July 1863 |accessdate=5 July 2012 |quote=Among the killed at Gettysburgh was a young; Chinaman, known as JOHN TOMMY.}}
19. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
20. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.npca.org/stateoftheparks/appomattox/APCO-full-report-web.pdf |title=Appomattox Court House |author=Daniel Saxton |year=2008 |work=State of the Parks |publisher=National Parks Conservation Association |accessdate=16 January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928133515/http://www.npca.org/stateoftheparks/appomattox/APCO-full-report-web.pdf |archivedate=28 September 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
21. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
22. ^{{cite web |title=H. Res. 415 [110th]: Honoring Edward Day Cohota, Joseph L. Pierce, and other veterans of Asian and Pacific Islander... (GovTrack.us) |url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=hr110-415 |work=Honoring Edward Day Cohota, Joseph L. Pierce, and other veterans of Asian and Pacific Islander descent who fought in the U.S. Civil War. |publisher=110th Congress 2007–2008 |accessdate=30 May 2011}}
23. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
24. ^{{cite web |last=Lin |first=Sam Chu |title=Chinese American Civil War Veteran Honored In Pennsylvania Ceremonies |url=http://www.committee100.org/media/media_eng/sam_chu_lin.html |work=Articles of Interest |publisher=Committee of 100, inc. |accessdate=27 August 2009}}
25. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
26. ^¹{{cite book|author1=Xiaojian Zhao|author2=Edward J.W. Park Ph.D.|title=Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA157|date=26 November 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-240-1|pages=157–158}}
27. ^{{cite web |url=http://www2.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/b/Bunker,Christopher_Wren.html |title=Collection Number: 04822-z |author= |date=May 2005 |website=The Southern Historical Collection |publisher=University of North Carolina |access-date=13 May 2016 |quote=He was captured 7 August 1864 and imprisoned at Camp Chase, Ohio. }}
28. ^
29. ^
30. ^{{cite news |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders and the Civil War |author=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/List-of-Asian-Pacific-Islanders-by-Country-of-Origin.pdf |newspaper= |date=2015 |accessdate=2015 |quote=}}
31. ^{{cite news |title=Filipinos display proud heritage exhibit at Five Corners Library |author=Brett Wishe |url=http://www.nj.com/hudson/index.ssf/2010/11/filipinos_display_proud_herita.html |newspaper=The Jersey Journal |date=2 November 2010 |accessdate=19 May 2011 |quote=Filled with photos and mini-essays, including old newspaper documents, it chronicles the roles of influential Filipino-Americans, from San Francisco Giants pitcher Tim Lincecum to Felix Cornelius Balderry, a Union soldier in the Civil War. }}
{{cite book |title=Michigan and the Civil War: A Great and Bloody Sacrifice |last=Dempsey |first=Jack |year=2011 |publisher=The History Press |location=Charleston, SC |isbn=978-1-60949-173-4 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=on6b2Pcl1lIC&lpg=PA88&ots=QVjBoYsdR3&dq=Felix%20Balderry%20civil%20war%20michigan&pg=PA88#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=19 May 2011 }}
32. ^{{cite book|author=Eliseo Art Arambulo Silva|title=Filipinos of Greater Philadelphia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsDpsSeBO3kC&pg=PA9|year=2012|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=978-0-7385-9269-5|page=9}}
33. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/More-Info-on-Asians-Pacific-Islanders-in-the-Civil-War-Alphabetically-by-Name.pdf |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders in the Civil War |author=Terry Foenander |author2=Edward Milligan |date=March 2015 |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=29 April 2017 }}
34. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.inquirer.net/globalnation/col_gln/2005/oct03.htm |title=Filipinos in Louisiana |author=Rodel E. Rodis |work=Global Nation |publisher=www.inq7.net |accessdate=14 February 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090906083110/http://www.inquirer.net/globalnation/col_gln/2005/oct03.htm |archivedate=6 September 2009 }}
35. ^{{cite book |title=Filipinos and Their Revolution: Event, Discourse, and Historiography |last=Ileto |first=Reynaldo Clemeña |year=1998 |publisher=Ateneo University Press |isbn=9789715502948 |page=121 |accessdate=20 August 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u92ZR42UhpIC&lpg=PA121&ots=oO_CMhG87D&dq=Filipino%20Confederates&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q=Filipino%20Confederates&f=false }}
36. ^{{cite book |title=Hispanic Confederates |last=O'Donnell-Rosales |first=John |year=2006 |publisher=Genealogical Publishing Com |location=Baltimore |isbn=978-0-8063-5230-5 |page=ix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jsuy2CLtuD0C&lpg=PR9&ots=EmtaY__lLC&dq=Confederacy%20Filipino%20Americans%20Louisiana&pg=PR9#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=15 February 2011}}
37. ^name="CivilWar2015">{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/More-Info-on-Asians-Pacific-Islanders-in-the-Civil-War-Alphabetically-by-Name.pdf |title=Asians and Pacific Islanders in the Civil War |author=Terry Foenander |author2=Edward Milligan |date=March 2015 |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=29 April 2017 }}
38. ^¹²³{{cite book |title=Sea change at Annapolis: the United States Naval Academy, 1949–2000, Volume 415 |last=Gelfand |first=H. Michael |year=2006 |publisher=UNC Press |isbn=9780807830475 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJDHptZWHUUC&lpg=PA48&ots=KTHcc3pCFW&dq=first%20filipino%20graduate%20usna&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q=first%20filipino%20graduate%20usna&f=false |accessdate=2 September 2009}}
39. ^{{cite book |title=Japan encounters the barbarian: Japanese travellers in America and Europe |last=Beasley |first=William |year=1995 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300063240 |page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X8qI7vtqcMEC&lpg=PA134&ots=pg_-HVu5jR&dq=%22Matsumura%20Junzo%22&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q=Annapolis&f=false |accessdate=2 September 2009}}
{{cite book |title=The Mikado's Empire |last=Griffis |first=William Elliot |year=1876 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn= |page=8 |url=https://archive.org/stream/themikadosempire00grifiala/themikadosempire00grifiala_djvu.txt |accessdate=2 September 2009}}
40. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/bupers-npc/reference/messages/Documents/NAVADMINS/NAV2007/NAV07091.txt |title=RAAUZYUW RUENAAA7101 1082000-UUUU—RUCRNAD |author=VADM J.C. Harvey Jr. |date=18 April 2007 |publisher=United States Navy |accessdate=29 May 2011 |quote=Seven first-generation Japanese Americans and one Chinese American where killed when the U.S.S. Main was sunk in Havana Harbor in 1898. }}
41. ^{{cite web |url=http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/asia_pacific/philippines.html |title=Philippines |author=Dr. Robert Winslow |quote=Although Americans have historically used the term "the Philippine Insurrection," Filipinos and an increasing number of American historians refer to these hostilities as the Philippine–American War (1899–1902), and in 1999 the U.S. Library of Congress reclassified its references to use this term. |work=A Comparative Criminology Tour of the World |publisher=San Diego State University |accessdate=8 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518034026/http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/rwinslow/asia_pacific/philippines.html |archivedate=18 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
42. ^{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of United States Army Insignia and Uniforms |last=Emerson |first=William K. |year=1996 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=9780806126227 |page=295 |accessdate=5 July 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trbBXKeHO3sC&lpg=PA295&ots=a4Vp9xu1N7&dq=1901%20Philippine%20Constabulary%20History&pg=PA295#v=onepage&q=1901%20Philippine%20Constabulary%20History&f=false}}
{{cite web |url=http://hss.pnp.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=34:history-of-camp-crame&catid=27:history&Itemid=32 |title=History of Camp Crame |date=25 August 2010 |work=Headquarters Support Service |publisher=Philippine National Police |accessdate=5 July 2012 |quote=With the official designation and consumption of General Henry T. Allen as its first Chief, the Constabulary was formally inaugurated in August 8, 1901 at Intramuros and with the bulk of its organization housed at the Gagalangin Barracks in Manila.}}
43. ^{{cite web |last=Olson |first=John E. |title=The History of the Philippine Scouts |url=http://www.philippine-scouts.org/history/history-of-the-scouts.html |date=11 May 2007 |work=History |publisher=Philippine Scouts Heritage Society |accessdate=29 August 2009}}
44. ^{{cite report |last=Linn |first=Brian McAllister |date=14 November 2005 |title=The Impact of the Imperial Wars (1898-1907) on the U.S. Army |url=https://www.heritage.org/node/9457/print-display |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |access-date=10 April 2018 |quote= }}
45. ^¹{{cite web|first=J.S. |last=Hooker |title=Filipinos in the United States Navy |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/filipinos.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060820202543/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/filipinos.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2006-08-20 |date=October 1976 |work=Naval Historical Center |publisher=Department of the Navy |accessdate=2 September 2009 }}
46. ^¹{{cite web |accessdate=8 June 2009 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/philippine.html |title=United States Army Center of Military History Medal of Honor Citations Archive |work=American Medal of Honor recipients for the Philippine Insurrection |publisher=United States Army Center of Military History |date=8 June 2009}}
47. ^{{cite web |last=George J. |first=Albert |title=The U.S.S. San Diego and the California Naval Militia |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/USSSanDiego.html |work=The California State Military Museum |publisher=California State Military Department |accessdate=22 September 2009}} and
{{cite web |title=Medal of Honor RecipientsInterim Awards, 1915–1916 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/interim1915-16.html |date=3 August 2009 |work=Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=22 September 2009}}
48. ^{{cite news|title=Pinoy WWII vets still top Fil-Am concern |author=Rodney Jaleco |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/10/19/10/pinoy-wwii-vets-still-top-fil-am-concern |newspaper=ABS-CBN |date=19 October 2010 |accessdate=16 January 2011 }}
{{cite web|url=http://www.deomi.org/downloadableFiles/ap98.pdf |title=Asian and Pacific Island American Heritage |author= |year=1998 |work= |publisher=Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute |accessdate=1 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725230207/http://www.deomi.org/downloadableFiles/ap98.pdf |archivedate=25 July 2011 |df= }}
49. ^{{cite news |last=Baer |first=Susan |last2=Gamerman |first2=Ellen |date=5 February 1998 |title=Starr questions 2 White House servants As insiders, they know first family's secrets |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1998-02-05-1998036120-story.html |work=Baltimore Sun |location= |access-date=3 January 2019 }}
{{cite book|author=Gary Aldrich|title=Unlimited Access: An FBI Agent Inside the Clinton White House|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TB7LLC_YwZIC&pg=PA142|date=1 February 1998|publisher=Regnery Publishing|isbn=978-0-89526-406-0|page=142}}
{{cite magazine |last= Alipio |first=Amy |date=2000 |title=All the Presidents' Manongs |url= |magazine=Filipinas |location= |publisher= |access-date= }}
50. ^¹²{{cite book |title=Annual report of the Secretary of War |authorlink=United States War Department |year=1915 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |location=Washington |isbn= |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=To0sAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PP25&ots=sjqTjAlLeQ&dq=1910%20Filipino%20West%20Point&pg=PP25#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=27 April 2011}}
51. ^{{cite book |title=The Philippine revolution of 1896: ordinary lives in extraordinary times |last=García |first=Florentino Rodao |author2=Florentino Rodao |author3=Felice Noelle Rodríguez |year=2001 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |isbn=9789715503860 |page=110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l533SkJ2VCkC&lpg=PA110&ots=2i96UKWLMm&dq=Vicente%20Lim%20%22west%20point%22&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q=Vicente%20Lim%20%22west%20point%22&f=false |accessdate=2 September 2009}}
52. ^{{cite book |title=The World almanac and book of facts |year=1914 |publisher=Newspaper Enterprise Association |isbn= |page=423 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GQ3AAAAMAAJ&lpg=PA423&ots=FXWVLKddwm&dq=1910%20Filipino%20West%20Point&pg=PA423#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=27 April 2011}}
53. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.chanrobles.com/tydingsmcduffieact.htm |title=The Philippine Independence Act (Tydings-McDuffie Act) |author= |work=Philippine laws, statutes and codes |publisher=Chan Robles Virtual Law Library |accessdate=8 July 2012 |quote=For the purposes of the Immigration Act of 1917, the Immigration Act of 1924 [except section 13 (c)], this section, and all other laws of the United States relating to the immigration, exclusion, or expulsion of aliens, citizens of the Philippine Islands who are not citizens of the United States shall be considered as if they were aliens. For such purposes the Philippine Islands shall be considered as a separate country and shall have for each fiscal year a quota of fifty.}}
54. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/greatwar/maps/ |title=Europe in 1914 |author= |year=2004 |work=Community Television of Southern California |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |accessdate=31 December 2012}}
55. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/american_latino_heritage/Village_of_Columbus_and_Camp_Furlong.html |title=Village of Columbus and Camp Furlong Columbus, New Mexico |author= |work=National Park Service |publisher=United States Department of the Interior |accessdate=31 December 2012}}
56. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/reference/army_flag/mexex.html |title=Mexican Expedition |author= |date=19 November 2010 |work=United States Army Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=31 December 2012}}
57. ^{{cite book |title=Mexico and the United States |last=Stacy |first=Lee |year=2002 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |location=0761474021 |isbn=0-7614-7402-1 |page=182 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSzyMGh8pNwC&lpg=PA182&dq=chinese&pg=PA182#v=onepage&q=chinese&f=false |accessdate=2 September 2009}}
58. ^¹{{cite book|author=Erika Lee|title=The Making of Asian America: A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6sfQDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA172|date=16 August 2016|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4767-3941-0|page=172}}
59. ^{{cite web |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1914-1920/WWI |title=American Entry into World War I, 1917 |author=Office of the Historian |work=Bureau of Public Affairs |publisher=United States Department of State |accessdate=31 December 2012}}
60. ^{{cite book|last=Wilson |first=John B. |title=Maneuver and Firepower: The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigades |series=Army Lineage Series |chapter=The Test – World War I |chapterurl=http://www.history.army.mil/books/Lineage/M-F/chapter3.htm |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/Lineage/M-F/index.htm#contents |accessdate=31 December 2012 |year=1998 |publisher=United States Army Center of Military History |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=9780160495717 |page=66 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121226124441/http://www.history.army.mil/books/Lineage/M-F/index.htm |archivedate=26 December 2012 |df= }}
61. ^{{cite book |last=Rinaldi |first=Richard A. |title=The US Army in World War I: Orders of Battle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vsoh_fBkAtwC&lpg=PA73&ots=2wbGNrIMpn&dq=%22Philippine%20National%20Guard%22%20World%20War%20One&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q=%22Philippine%20National%20Guard%22%20World%20War%20One&f=false |accessdate=31 December 2012 |year=2004 |publisher=Tiger Lily Publications LLC |isbn=9780972029643 |page=73 }}
62. ^¹{{cite web |last=Allerfeldt |first=Kristofer |title=Work or Fight! |url=http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/paper/allerfeldtk.html |date=January 2009 |work=Reviews in History |publisher=The Institute of Historical Research |accessdate=4 February 2013 |quote=He shows that while the Dawes Act and Alien Land Laws explicitly barred non-whites – Native Americans and Asians rather than 'coloreds' (African Americans) – from the ownership of land, the San Diego draft still included 'American Indians, Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans and Mexican Americans', all called as part of the '"white" quota'. Perhaps unsurprisingly none of these groups ever saw combat, but at least for the Native Americans it contributed to their gaining of citizenship, en masse, in 1924. }}
63. ^{{citation |url=http://asianjournalusa.com/default.asp?sourceid=&smenu=141&twindow=&mad=&sdetail=3692&wpage=1&skeyword=&sidate=&ccat=&ccatm=&restate=&restatus=&reoption=&retype=&repmin=&repmax=&rebed=&rebath=&subname=&pform=&sc=1028&hn=asianjournalusa&he=.com |title=America's Thanksgiving and the Philippines' National Heroes Day: Two Holidays Rooted in History and Tradition |author=Zena Sultana-Babao |publisher=Asian Journal |accessdate=12 January 2008 }}
{{cite news |title=Balitang Beterano: Facts about the Philippine independence |author=Sol Jose Vanzi |newspaper=Philippine Headline News Online |date=3 June 2004 |url=http://www.newsflash.org/2004/02/tl/tl012375.htm |accessdate=16 October 2009 }}
{{cite web |url=http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2007/01/25/SCAU2007012585502.html |title=Schools, colleges and Universities: Tomas Claudio Memorial College |publisher=Manila Bulletin Online |accessdate=4 July 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707015924/http://www.mb.com.ph/issues/2007/01/25/SCAU2007012585502.html |archivedate=7 July 2007 }}
- {{cite web |url=http://www.tcmc.edu.ph/ |title=Thomas Claudio Memorial College |publisher=www.tcmc.edu.ph |accessdate=4 July 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630115212/http://www.tcmc.edu.ph/ |archivedate=30 June 2007 |df=dmy-all }}
64. ^{{cite book |title=Five Days in October: The Lost Battalion of World War I |last=Ferrell |first=Robert H. |year=2005 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=9780826215949 |page=97 |accessdate=26 August 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OhJPW4b8WmQC&lpg=PA97&ots=deRFCV4oA8&dq=Henry%20Chinn%20Lost%20Battalion&pg=PA97#v=onepage&q=Henry%20Chinn%20Lost%20Battalion&f=false }}
{{cite book |title=The Lost Battalion |last=Johnson |first=Thomas M. |last2=Pratt |first2=Fletcher |others=Edward M. Coffman |year=2000 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=9780803276130 |page=228 |accessdate=26 August 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vB8SU4cZ4VMC&lpg=PA220&ots=b7hI22ZC4e&dq=Chinn%20Lost%20Battalion&pg=PA220#v=onepage&q=Chinn%20Lost%20Battalion&f=false }}
65. ^{{cite book |title=Lost Battalions: The Great War and the Crisis of American Nationality |last=Slotkin |first=Richard |year=2006 |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=9780805081381 |page=199 |accessdate=26 August 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=untfy7pCwWgC&lpg=PA199&ots=sa56Vv9EbC&dq=Sergeant%20Sing%20Kee%20Lost%20Battalion&pg=PA199#v=onepage&q=Sergeant%20Sing%20Kee%20Lost%20Battalion&f=false |quote=Sing Kee would receive the Distinguished Service Cross and be promoted to color sergeant, the highest rank attained by a Chinese-American in the AEF. }}
{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/5views/5views3g.htm |title=Quarantine And Its Aftereffects |author=Nancy Wey |date=17 November 2004 |work=Five Views: An Ethnic Historic Site Survey for California |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=26 February 2013 |quote=On June 13, 1919, Sing Kee returned home to San Jose after receiving the Distinguished Service Cross for bravery in action with the 77th or "Liberty" Division in the Argonne Forest. }}
{{cite web |url=http://militarytimes.com/citations-medals-awards/recipient.php?recipientid=12842 |title=Valor awards for Sing Kee |author= |work=Military Times Hall of Valor |publisher=Gannett Government Media Corporation |accessdate=26 February 2013}}
66. ^¹{{cite journal |last=Salyer |first=Lucy |date=December 2004 |title=Baptism by Fire: Race, Military Service, and U.S. Citizenship Policy, 1918–1935 |journal=The Journal of American History |volume=91 |issue=3 |url=http://www.oahsecure.org/portal/publications/pub:jah/volume:91/number:3/starting_page:847/pt:pub |accessdate=4 February 2013 }}
67. ^{{cite book |title=The blood of government: race, empire, the United States, & the Philippines |last=Kramer |first=Paul Alexander |year=2006 |publisher=UNC Press |isbn=978-0-8078-5653-6 |page=384 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e2OIAj3cp7wC&lpg=PA384&ots=u3vDK9_r_6&dq=all%20filipino%20crew%20united%20states%20navy&pg=PA384#v=onepage&q=all%20filipino%20crew%20united%20states%20navy&f=false |accessdate=22 November 2009}}
68. ^{{cite book |editor1-first=James C. |editor1-last=Bradford |title=A Companion to American Military History: 2 Volume Set |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6TctrNS2-34C&lpg=PA194&vq=Asian&pg=PA887#v=snippet&q=Asian&f=false |accessdate=9 February 2013 |series=Volume 45 of Blackwell Companions to American History |year=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=1444315110 |chapter=Minorities in the Military |last1=Bruscino Jr. |first1=Thomas A. |page=887 }}
69. ^{{cite web |title=World War I |url=http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/history/worldwar1.html |work=Asian Pacific Americans |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=4 September 2009}}
{{cite book |title= Asian Americans: An Interpretive History |series= Twayne's immigrant heritage of America series |last= Chan |first= Sucheng |year= 1991 |publisher= Twayne |isbn= 978-0-8057-8437-4 |page= 196 |url= https://books.google.com/books?ei=PxBuTcKmK4O0sAPb3cS2Cw&ct=result&id=P9Zro9x6mZQC&dq=Asian+Americans,+an+Interpretive+History&q=citizen+world+war#search_anchor |accessdate= 2 March 2011}}
70. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/rootsinthesand/i_bhagat1.html |title=Bhagat Singh Thind |author= |year=2000 |work= |publisher=Public Broadcasting System |accessdate=28 November 2009 }}
{{cite web |url=http://www.janm.org/nrc/militarych.php |title=Japanese Americans in America's Wars: A Chronology |publisher=Japanese American National Museum |accessdate=28 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613010440/http://www.janm.org/nrc/militarych.php |archivedate=13 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}
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71. ^{{Cite report |title=The Filipino American Community |url=http://www.azhistory.net/aahps/f_filipino_etc.pdf |last=Solliday |first=Scott |author2=Vince Murray |year=2007 |publisher=City of Phoenix |accessdate=10 March 2011 }}
{{cite book|author=The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc.|title=The Crisis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA200|date=July 1940|publisher=The Crisis Publishing Company, Inc.|pages=200–|issn=0011-1422}}
{{cite journal |last=Segal |first=David R. |last2=Segal |first2=Mandy Wechsler |date=December 2004 |title=America's Military Population |url=http://www.prb.org/source/acf1396.pdf |journal=Population Bulletin |publisher=Population Reference Bureau |volume=59 |issue=4 |issn=0032-468X |accessdate=18 December 2014}}
72. ^{{cite book |title=Home Bound: Filipino American Lives across Cultures, Communities, and Countries |first=Yen |last=Le Espiritu |publisher=University of California Press |year=2003 |isbn=9780520235274 |page=29 |accessdate=23 October 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W19b7W7nsxYC&lpg=PA30&ots=MR8vPoxhBs&dq=Navy%20Bases%20Filipino%20communities&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q=Navy%20Bases%20Filipino%20communities&f=false }}
73. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.navalhistory.org/2011/04/01/the-insular-force-adapting-to-local-conditions |title=The Insular Force: Adapting to Local Conditions |author=NHHC |date=1 April 2011 |website=Naval History Blog |publisher=United States Naval Institute |access-date=26 January 2016}}
74. ^{{cite web |last=Graham |first=Sylvia |title=Firsts & Lasts at USMA |url=http://www.westpointaog.org/NetCommunity/Document.Doc?id=480 |year=2005 |work=Register of Graduates and Former Cadets |publisher=United States Military Academy |accessdate=24 September 2009}}
75. ^{{cite web |last=Truesdell |first=Leon |title=Population, Characteristics of the nonwhite population by race |url=http://www2.census.gov/prod2/decennial/documents/41271189.pdf |year=1943 |work=Sixteenth Census of the United States:1940 |publisher=United States Department of Commerce |accessdate=21 September 2009}}
76. ^{{cite web |url=http://sandiegoairandspace.org/exhibits/asian_american_exhibit/ |title=Asian-Americans in Aviation Online Exhibition |author= |website=sandiegoairandspace.org |publisher=San Diego Air & Space Museum |accessdate=5 August 2014}}
{{cite web |url=http://www.airpowermuseum.org/exhibits/acahof/assets/pdf/1997/chin.pdf |title=Major Arthus T. Chin, Chinese Air Force |year=1997 |author= |website=airpowermuseum.org |publisher=CAF Airpower Museum |accessdate=5 August 2014}}
{{cite book |last=Hedge |first=Rosa L. |year=2007 |title=A Review of Minority Recruitment Programs in Aviation Education Programs |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VYVDAc_nqzYC&lpg=PA23&dq=Arthur%20Chin%20Major&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q&f=false |location=Oklahoma State University |publisher=ProQuest |page=23 |isbn=9780549363880 |accessdate=5 August 2014 }}
77. ^{{cite news |title=1939: Germany invades Poland |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/1/newsid_3506000/3506335.stm |newspaper=BBC News |year=2008 |accessdate=4 February 2013}}
78. ^{{cite book |last=Ayling |first=Keith |title=They Fly for Victory |year=1943 |publisher=T. Nelson and sons |page=119 }}
79. ^{{cite book |last=Potter |first=Elmer Belmont |last2=Adams |first2=Henry Hitch |title=Sea Power: A Naval History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zql2rWh6QAsC&lpg=PA255&ots=uzanG0fMUM&dq=%22Cash%20and%20carry%22%20escort%20convoy&pg=PA255#v=onepage&q=%22Cash%20and%20carry%22%20escort%20convoy&f=false |accessdate=4 February 2013 |year=1981 |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=9780870216077 |page=255 }}
80. ^{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/7/newsid_3494000/3494108.stm |title=1941: Japanese planes bomb Pearl Harbor |author= |work=On this Day |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=31 December 2012}}
81. ^¹{{cite book |title=Distinguished Asian Americans: a biographical dictionary |last=Kim |first=Hyung-chan |year=1999 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=0-313-28902-6 |page=135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=prhRl6DYXRMC&lpg=PA135&ots=E_5FueH6pX&dq=pearl%20harbor%20inouye%201971&pg=PA135#v=onepage&q=pearl%20harbor%20inouye%201971&f=false |accessdate=13 September 2009}}
82. ^{{cite web |title=Philippine Islands |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/pi.htm |date=3 October 2003 |work=Center of Military History |publisher=U.S. Army |accessdate=20 September 2009}}
83. ^{{cite web|url=http://goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_veterans_100th.asp |title=100th Infantry battalion |author= |work=History |publisher=Go For Broke National Education Center |accessdate=2 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203133327/http://goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_veterans_100th.asp |archivedate=3 February 2011 |df= }}
84. ^{{cite web |url=http://hirono.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=267216 |title=Congresswoman Hirono Statement on Legislation Honoring "Go For Broke" Japanese-American WWII Veterans with the Congressional Gold Medal |last1=Hirin |first1=Mazie K. |work=Floor Statements |publisher=United States House of Representatives |accessdate=31 December 2012 |quote=in spite of these acts of loyalty and courage, the U.S. Army discharged all Nisei in the ROTC unit, changed their draft status to ineligible, and segregated all Japanese Americans in the military on the mainland out of their units. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221030128/http://hirono.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=267216 |archivedate=21 December 2012 |df=dmy-all }}
85. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/news/article.php?aId=5093 |title=Seven posthumous degrees to be awarded at ROTC Commissioning Ceremony |last1=McKay |first1=Kevin |last2=Chang |first2=Diane |date=9 May 2012 |work=News release archive |publisher=The University of Hawaii System |accessdate=31 December 2012 |quote=In the hours following the bombing, all UH ROTC cadets were told to report to duty, forming the Hawai'i Territorial Guard (HTG), which was assigned to guard military installations on O'ahu. A month later, members who were of Japanese ancestry were expelled from the HTG because of their ethnicity.}}
86. ^{{cite web |url=http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1206614061171.html |title=Home Frot |last1=Miho |first1=Katsugo |year=2006 |work=The Hawaii Nisei Project |publisher=University of Hawaii |accessdate=31 December 2012 |quote=On January 19, 1942, all men of Japanese ancestry in the Hawaii Territorial Guard are discharged. }}
87. ^{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Greg |title=A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2N7yKKbBKD4C&lpg=PA119&dq=Discharged%20Guardsmen%20Varsity%20Victory%20Volunteers&pg=PA119#v=onepage&q=Discharged%20Guardsmen%20Varsity%20Victory%20Volunteers&f=false |accessdate=31 December 2012 |year=2010 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231129237 |page=119 }}
88. ^{{cite web |url=http://goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_timeline_1942.asp |title=Timeline |author= |work=History |publisher=Go For Broke National Education Center |accessdate=2 March 2011}}
89. ^¹²³⁴{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm |title=Fighting for Democracy: Japanese Americans |author= |date=September 2007 |work=WETA |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |accessdate=5 February 2013}}
90. ^{{cite news|title=The "Go for Broke" Regiment Lives Duty, Honor, Country |author=Rudi Williams |url=http://www.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45180 |newspaper=American Forces Press Service |date=25 May 2000 |accessdate=20 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714204202/http://www.defense.gov//News/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=45180 |archivedate=14 July 2012 |df= }}
91. ^{{cite web |last=Nakagawa |first=Martha |title=In Times of War |url=http://kcet.org/explore-ca/web-stories/ritesofpassage/duty/essay.php |work=Rights of Passage |publisher=Community Television of Southern California |accessdate=20 September 2009}}
92. ^{{cite web |last=Pike |first=John |title=100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/100-442in.htm |date=23 May 2005 |work=Military |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |accessdate=20 September 2009}}
93. ^¹{{cite web |title=100th Battalion, 442d Infantry |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/apam/100bn_442inf.html |date=3 August 2009 |work=Center of Military History |publisher=U.S. Army |accessdate=20 September 2009}}
94. ^{{cite web|title=Central Europe Campaign (552nd Field Artillery battalion) |url=http://www.goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_campaigns_central.asp |work=History |publisher=Go For Broke National Education Center |accessdate=20 September 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125092614/http://www.goforbroke.org/history/history_historical_campaigns_central.asp |archivedate=25 November 2009 |df= }}
95. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/apam/patriots.html |title=Patriots under Fire: Japanese Americans in World War II |publisher=United States Department of Defense, Department of the Army, Center of Military History |date=May 2006 |accessdate=6 June 2014 |author=Shenkle, Kathryn |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623035411/http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/apam/patriots.html |archivedate=23 June 2013 }}
96. ^{{cite book|last=Asahina|first=Robert|title=Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dV-lgSTebEsC|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Group USA|isbn=978-1-59240-300-4}}
97. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.njahs.org/misnorcal/campaigns/campaigns_japan.htm |title=Occupied Japan |author= |year=2003 |work=Campaigns of the Pacific |publisher=Military Intelligence Service Association of Northern California |accessdate=4 February 2013}}
{{cite web |url=http://www.njahs.org/misnorcal/campaigns/campaigns.htm |title=Pacific Theater |author= |year=2003 |work=Campaigns of the Pacific |publisher=Military Intelligence Service Association of Northern California |accessdate=4 February 2013}}
{{cite book |last=McNaughton |first=James C. |authorlink= |title=Nisei Linguists: Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service during World War II |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/nisei_linguists/CMH_70-99-1.pdf |accessdate=8 February 2013 |year=2007 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |isbn=1780390432 |pages=514}}
98. ^¹²³{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gov/News/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=43027 |title=Asian Pacific American Women Served in World War II, Too |author=Rudi Williams |date=27 May 1999 |work=American Forces Press Service |publisher=United States Department of Defense |accessdate=18 July 2012}}
99. ^{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2012-featured-story-archive/japanese-americans-WWII-intel.html|title=Japanese Americans in World War II Intelligence |author= |date=11 May 2012 |work=Featured Story Archive |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=4 February 2013}}
100. ^{{cite web |url=http://militarytimes.com/citations-medals-awards/recipient.php?recipientid=2826 |title=Sadao S. Munemori |work=Military Times Hall of Valor |publisher=Gannett Government Media Corporation |accessdate=30 October 2012 |quote=Sadao Munemori was the ONLY Japanese-American awarded the Medal of Honor during or immediately after World War II. With prejudice still strong, it required intervention by Congress to at last see him posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. }}
101. ^{{cite web |accessdate=25 August 2009 |url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/ap-moh1.html |title = Asian Pacific American World War II |work = Medal of Honor Recipients |publisher = United States Army Center of Military History |date = 8 June 2009}}
{{cite web |title=100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry |publisher=GlobalSecurity.org |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/100-442in.htm|date=23 May 2005 |accessdate=27 September 2008|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080911011150/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/100-442in.htm|archivedate=11 September 2008 |deadurl=no}}
102. ^{{citation |last=Steffen |first=Jordan |title=White House honors Japanese American WWII veterans | newspaper=The Los Angeles Times |date=6 October 2010 |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-veterans-medal-20101006,0,7017069.story}}
103. ^{{cite book |title=Americans first: Chinese Americans and the Second World War |last=Wong |first=Kevin Scott |year=2005 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01671-2 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wex-8MBRkKYC&lpg=PA50&ots=EBq45e5dhV&dq=%22Chinese%20Americans%22%20%22World%20War%20II%22&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=%22Chinese%20Americans%22%20%22World%20War%20II%22&f=false |accessdate=21 September 2009}}
104. ^{{cite news |title=One Fifth of Chinese Americans Fight Fascism in World War II |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-18366243.html |newspaper= |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |date=28 May 2001 |accessdate=21 September 2009}}{{dead link|date=February 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
105. ^¹²{{cite web |title=World War II/Post War Era |url=http://www.museumca.org/picturethis/4_7.html |work=Timeline |publisher=Oakland Museum of California |accessdate=2 October 2009}}
106. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/calcultures/ethnic_groups/subtopic2c.html |title=Asian Americans:World War II |author= |year=2013|work=Calisphere |publisher=The Regents of The University of California |accessdate=5 February 2013}}
107. ^¹{{cite web |author=James C. McNaughton |title=Chinese-Americans in World War II |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/topics/apam/chinese-americans.html |work=Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |date=3 August 2009 |accessdate=2 October 2009}}
108. ^¹²{{cite book |title=Americans first: Chinese Americans and the Second World War |last=Wong |first=Kevin Scott |year=2005 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01671-2 |page=61 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wex-8MBRkKYC&lpg=PA50&ots=EBq45e5dhV&dq=%22Chinese%20Americans%22%20%22World%20War%20II%22&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q=%22Chinese%20Americans%22%20%22World%20War%20II%22&f=false |accessdate=2 October 2009}}
109. ^{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2000/oct/23/news/cl-40608|title=Adding a Missing Piece to Mosaic of American History|work=Los Angeles Times|date=23 October 2000|first=Dennis|last=McLellan|accessdate=18 January 2016}}
110. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.deomi.org/SPECIALOBSERVANCE/documents/Asian_Pacific_American_Heritage_Month_Facts_of_the_Day.pdf |title=Asian Pacific American Heritage Month |author=Major Karen J. Gregory, USAFR |publisher=Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute |accessdate=31 May 2011 |quote=On December 15, 1943, Wilbur Carl Sze was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant and the first Chinese-American officer in the U.S. Marine Corps}}
{{cite web |url=http://www.defense.gov/specials/asianpacific2002/apa-usmc02.html |title=apa-usmc02 |author= |year=2002 |work=Asian Pacific American Heritage Month 2002 |publisher=Department of Defense |accessdate=31 May 2011}}
111. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_06.htm |title=Chapter 6 |author=Louis Morton |work=Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=12 November 2009 }}
112. ^{{Citation | last =Merriam | first =Ray | year =1999 | title =War in the Philippines | publisher =Merriam Press | pages = 70–82 | isbn =1-57638-164-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=utbD8wwF91kC&pg=PA70&lpg=PA70&dq=26th+cavalry&source=web&ots=PGuA3JpiEt&sig=upw4pWSJRiZX7uT_ys6d-snEGss#PPA70,M1 | accessdate =31 January 2008}}
113. ^{{cite book |chapter=The Decision To Withdraw to Bataan |chapterurl=http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_06.htm |last=Morton |first=Louis |title=Command Decisions |editor-first=Kent Roberts |editor-last=Greenfield |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm |accessdate=8 January 2013 |year=2000 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, D.C. |page=169 |lccn=59-60007 }}
114. ^{{cite book |editor1-first=Kent Roberts |editor1-last=Greenfield |last1=Morton |first1=Louis |title=The Fall of the Philippines |chapter=Command |chapterurl=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_20.htm |accessdate=8 January 2012 |year=1953 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, D.C. |lccn=53-63678 |page=357 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_Contents.htm }}
115. ^{{cite book |editor1-first=Kent Roberts |editor1-last=Greenfield |last1=Morton |first1=Louis |title=The Fall of the Philippines |chapter=Surrender |chapterurl=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_26.htm |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_Contents.htm |accessdate=8 January 2012 |year=1953 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington, D.C. |lccn=53-63678 |page=466 }}
116. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/history/bataan.html |title=Bataan death March |author= |work=Asian Pacific Americans in the United States Army |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=8 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331090851/http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/history/bataan.html |archivedate=31 March 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
117. ^{{cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon |title=The Cabanatuan Prison Raid -?The Philippines 1945 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GzoaH7paYwIC&lpg=PA4&dq=%22Chinese%20Filipinos%22%20surrender%20Japan&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q=%22Chinese%20Filipinos%22%20surrender%20Japan&f=false |accessdate=8 January 2013 |year=2012 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=9781782004974 |page=4 }}
118. ^{{cite web|url=http://home.pacbell.net/fbaldie/In_Retrospect.html|title= Bataan, Corregidor, and the Death March: In Retrospect|date=28 October 2002|first=Maj. Richard M., (U.S. Army, retired) |last= Gordon |accessdate=27 September 2007}}
{{cite web |url=http://philippine-defenders.lib.wv.us/html/bataan.html |title=Bataan Death March |author= |work=The Brooke County Public Library Foundation-ADBC Museum |publisher=Brooke County Public Library |accessdate=8 January 2013}}
119. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/all-american-forces-in-the-philippines-surrender-unconditionally |title=All American forces in the Philippines surrender unconditionally |author= |work=History.com |publisher=A&E Television Networks |accessdate=5 July 2012 }}
120. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA100220 |title=USMA Foreign Cadet Program—A Case Study |author=Colonel Clarence E. Endy Jr. |date=4 May 1981 |work=United States Army War College |publisher=Defense Technical Information center |accessdate=11 September 2012}}
121. ^{{cite book |title=Filipinos in America |last=Frank |first=Sarah |year=2005 |publisher=Lerner Publications |isbn=978-0-8225-4873-7 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Yr-p5T54qEC&lpg=PA37&ots=Tuyv5ydKXH&dq=%22First%20Filipino%20Regiment%22&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q=%22First%20Filipino%20Regiment%22&f=false |accessdate=12 November 2009}}
122. ^{{cite book|author=Dawn Bohulano Mabalon|title=Little Manila Is in the Heart: The Making of the Filipina/o American Community in Stockton, California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ES2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|date=29 May 2013|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-9574-4|page=233}}
123. ^{{cite web |url=http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~gonzo1/files/456/456_READER_2004S.pdf |title=A Filipino Rookie In Uncle Sam's Army |author=Doroteo V. Vite |work=Asian American Studies 456 Filipinos In America Course Reader |publisher=San Francisco State University |accessdate=12 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606154203/http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~gonzo1/files/456/456_READER_2004S.pdf |archivedate=6 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
124. ^¹²{{cite web |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/Filipino.html |title=California's Filipino Infantry |author=Alex S. Fabros |work=The California State Military Museum |publisher=California State Military Department |accessdate=12 November 2009 }}
125. ^{{cite book |title=The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898–1946 |last=Baldoz |first=Rick |authorlink= |year=2011 |publisher=NYU Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8147-9109-7 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qtn31sdI4j8C&lpg=PA10&dq=The%20Third%20Asiatic%20Invasion%3A%20Migration%20and%20Empire%20in%20Filipino%20America%2C%201898-1946%20(Nation%20of%20Newcomers)&pg=PA214#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=7 June 2011}}
126. ^{{cite journal|last1=Nakano |first1=Satoshi |year=2004 |title=The Filipino World War II veterans equity movement and the Filipino American community |journal=Seventh Annual International Philippine Studies |publisher=Center for Pacific And American Studies |url=http://www.cpas.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/pub/PAS6_Nakano_133-58.pdf |accessdate=15 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080219/http://www.cpas.c.u-tokyo.ac.jp/pub/PAS6_Nakano_133-58.pdf |archivedate=22 July 2011 |df= }}
127. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=28040 |title=The First and Second Filipino Infantry Regiments U.S. Army |author=Andrew Ruppenstien |author2=Manny Santos |date=21 January 2010 |work= |publisher=Historic Marker Database |accessdate=10 May 2011 |quote=Personnel won more than 50,000 decorations, awards, medals, ribbons, certificates, commendations and citations. }}
128. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |title=The Guerrilla War |author= |work=MacArthur |publisher=PBS |accessdate=12 November 2009 }}
{{cite book |title=Us Special Warfare Units in the Pacific Theater 1941–45 |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |year=2005 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-707-9 |pages=39–43 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sMnCNdLO888C&lpg=PA41&ots=7OPS3qfLis&dq=5217th%20Reconnaissance%20Battalion&pg=PA40#v=onepage&q=5217th%20Reconnaissance%20Battalion&f=false |accessdate=14 November 2009}}
129. ^{{cite news |title=New film depicts Filipino regiments' exploits |author=Scott Ishikawa |url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2001/Nov/30/ln/ln03a.html |newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser |date=30 November 2001 |accessdate=28 April 2011}}
{{cite book |title=Filipinos in America |last=Frank |first=Sarah |year=2005 |publisher=Lerner Publications |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |isbn=978-0-8225-4873-7 |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Yr-p5T54qEC&lpg=PA37&ots=Tvtu8DiHSC&dq=%22Filipino%20Infantry%20regiment%22&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=28 April 2011}}
130. ^(Nota Bene: These combat chronicles, current as of October 1948, are reproduced from The Army Almanac: A Book of Facts Concerning the Army of the United States, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950, pp. 510–592.)
131. ^¹{{cite news |title=Aging Filipinos who fought for U.S. live lonely lives waiting for promises to be kept |author=Emelyn Cruz Lat |url=http://articles.sfgate.com/1997-05-25/news/28568977_1 |newspaper=San Francisco Examiner |date=25 May 1997 |accessdate=15 March 2011}}
132. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.philippine-scouts.org/history.html |title=Post World War II Philippine Scouts |author=J. Michael Houlahan |date=11 May 2007 |work=History |publisher=Philippine Scouts Heritage Society |accessdate=14 November 2009 }}
{{cite web |url=http://akaka.senate.gov/statements-and-speeches.cfm?method=releases.view&id=70972a30-b1fc-46d1-8390-df63eba8a217 |title=Statement on Senator Daniel K. Akaka before the Senate Veterans' Affairs committee hearing on pending legislation |author=Senator Daniel Akaka |date=25 July 1997 |work=Senator Daniel Akaka |publisher=United States Senate |accessdate=15 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110117183210/http://akaka.senate.gov/statements-and-speeches.cfm?method=releases.view&id=70972a30-b1fc-46d1-8390-df63eba8a217 |archivedate=17 January 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
133. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_filipino_veterans.pdf |title=VA Benefits for Filipino Veterans |author= |date=April 2008 |work= |publisher=United States Department of Veterans Affairs |accessdate=15 March 2011}}
{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/st-louis/military-personnel/philippine-army-records.html |title=Philippine Army and Guerrilla Records |author= |work=National Personnel Records Center, St. Louis |publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |accessdate=15 March 2011}}
134. ^{{cite book |title=Diary of the war: World War II memoirs of Lt. Col. Anastacio Campo |last=Virginia Yap Morales |first=Maria |year=2006 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |location=Quezon City |isbn=978-971-550-489-8 |page=198 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oPPh-Of8sEwC&lpg=PP1&vq=750%2C000&pg=PA198#v=snippet&q=250000&f=false |accessdate=15 March 2011}}
{{cite book |title=Filipinos in the East Bay |last=Canonizado Buell |first=Evengeline |author2=Evelyn Luluguisen |author3=Lillian Galedo |author4=Eleanor Hipol Luis |year=2008 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=978-0-7385-5832-5 |page=8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4cagVAo5D0C&lpg=PA8&vq=250%2C000&pg=PA8#v=snippet&q=250,000&f=false |accessdate=15 March 2011}}
135. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.cr.nps.gov/crdi/publications/Asianisms-chapter4.pdf |title=Asian Heritage in the National Park Service Cultural Resources Programs |author= |work= |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=15 March 2011}}
136. ^{{cite news | last = Jaleco | first = Rodney | title = Excluded Fil-Vets Now Eligible for Lump-Sum Money | work = Balitang America | publisher = ABS-CBN | date = 4 August 2010 | url = http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/pinoy-migration/balitang-america/03/28/09/excluded-fil-vets-now-eligible-lump-sum-money | accessdate = 15 March 2011 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090330180411/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/pinoy-migration/balitang-america/03/28/09/excluded-fil-vets-now-eligible-lump-sum-money | archivedate = 30 March 2009 | df = dmy-all }}
137. ^{{cite book |title= Go For Broke: The Nisei Warriors of World War II Who Conquered Germany |last=Sterner |first=C. Douglas |year=2007 |publisher=American Legacy Media |location=Clearfield, Utah |isbn=978-0-9796896-1-1 |pages= 134–135 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=teeObc0NHUAC&lpg=PA134&dq=Jose%20Calugas&pg=PA134#v=onepage&q=Jose%20Calugas&f=false |accessdate= 2 March 2011}}
138. ^{{cite news |title= Jose Calugas, Medal of Honor Winnier 'Death March' Survivor |author= Carole Beers |url= http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19980124&slug=2730347 |newspaper= The Seattle Times |date= 24 January 1998 |accessdate=2 March 2011}}
139. ^{{Cite news |title=Rudolph Davila, 85, Recipient of Highest Award for Valor |author=Richard Goldstein |newspaper=New York Times |date=11 February 2002 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/11/us/rudolph-davila-85-recipient-of-highest-award-for-valor.html |accessdate=2 March 2011 }}
140. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.csun.edu/~sg4002/courses/417/417_lectures/417_post_war.htm |title=Geography 417 |author=Dr. Steven M. Graves |work=Geography 417 |publisher=California State University, Northridge |accessdate=18 May 2011 |quote= Lt. Col. Leon Punsalang, a West Point graduate, command of the 1st Battalion marking the first time in that an Asian American commanded white troops in combat.}}
141. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.uscg.mil/history/people/FlorenceFinchBio.asp |title=Florence Ebersole Smith Finch, USCGR (W) |author= |date=8 May 2012 |work=United States Coast Guard |publisher=United States Department of Homeland Security |accessdate=18 July 2012}}
142. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=3251 |title=Korean Americans in King County |author=Carey Giudici |date=31 May 2001 |work=Cyberpedia Library |publisher=HistoryLink.org |accessdate=20 November 2009}}
143. ^{{cite news|title=Korean American History |author=May Chow |url=http://asianweek.com/2003_01_10/feature_timeline.html |newspaper=Asian Week |date=10–16 January 2003 |accessdate=2 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526003555/http://www.asianweek.com/2003_01_10/feature_timeline.html |archivedate=26 May 2011 |df= }}
{{cite book|title=The Koreas |last=Armstrong |first=Charles K. |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-0-415-94853-1 |page=104 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mh4Qv4lAkQC&lpg=PT116&ots=sNpl1eOQMv&dq=Military%20Order%20No.%2045%20Korean%20Americans&pg=PT116#v=onepage&q=Military%20Order%20No.%2045%20Korean%20Americans&f=false |accessdate=2 March 2011 }}
144. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/1633.html |title=The Korean Americans in the War of Independence |author=Kim Young Sik, Ph.D. |date=9 November 2003 |work=East Asia |publisher=Association for Asia Research |accessdate=20 November 2009}}
145. ^{{cite book |title=Koreans in America |last=Taus-Bolstad |first=Stacy |year=2005 |publisher=Lerner Publications |isbn=978-0-8225-4874-4 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6Tw_NPEe58C&lpg=PA45&ots=NK8l58CyDY&dq=%22Korean%20americans%22%20World%20War%20II&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q=%22Korean%20americans%22%20World%20War%20II&f=false |accessdate=20 November 2009}}
146. ^{{cite book |last=Kim |first=Kathrine Yungmee |title=Los Angeles's Koreatown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lgaL4QsFHDUC&lpg=PA55&ots=oB_UArbQv1&dq=Korean%20%22Tiger%20Brigade%22%20%22California%20National%20Guard%22&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=5 February 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=9780738575520 |page=55 }}
{{cite book |last=Wilmoth |first=Janet M. |last2=London |first2=Andrew S. |title=Life Course Perspectives on Military Service |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TdqEVEtXLQC&lpg=PA85&ots=O2198U0pjL&dq=Racism%20%22Asian%22%20%22United%20States%20Military%22%20%22Korean%20War%22&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=5 February 2013 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415879415 |page=85 }}
{{cite book |last=Ryang |first=Sonia |last2=Lie |first2=John |title=Diaspora Without Homeland: Being Korean in Japan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78537bNL7VIC&lpg=PA161&ots=0ayyoFfM-u&dq=Korean%20%22Tiger%20Brigade%22%20%22California%20National%20Guard%22&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=5 February 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520098633 |page=161 }}
{{cite web |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/KoreanRegiment.html |title=California Korean Reserve |author= |work=California State Military Museum |publisher=California State Military Department |accessdate=5 February 2013}}
147. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.goforbroke.org/oral_histories/oral_histories_hanashi_podcast.asp |title=PODCASTS |author= |work=Oral History |publisher=Go For Broke National Education Center |accessdate=20 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081208013532/http://www.goforbroke.org/oral_histories/oral_histories_hanashi_podcast.asp |archivedate=8 December 2008 |df=dmy-all }}
148. ^¹{{cite news |title=Soldier embodied bravery of 100th Battalion vets |author=Gregg K. Kakesako |newspaper=Honolulu Star Bulletin |date=4 January 2006 |url=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2006/01/04/news/story09.html |accessdate=20 November 2009}}
149. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.homeofheroes.com/moh/nisei/index5_anzio.html |title=Anzio and the Road to Rome |author=C. Douglas Sterner |work= |publisher=HomeOfHeroes.com |accessdate=20 November 2009}}
150. ^¹{{cite news|title=Veterans Day: Korean-American defied the odds to become ace fighter pilot |author=Margaret Downing |url=http://www.communityshoppers.com/headlines/veterans-day-korean-american-defied-the-odds-to-become-ace-fighter-pilot.html |newspaper=Stateline News |date=10 November 2011 |accessdate=8 March 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130119142555/http://www.communityshoppers.com/headlines/veterans-day-korean-american-defied-the-odds-to-become-ace-fighter-pilot.html |archivedate= 19 January 2013 |df= }}
151. ^{{cite journal|last1=Bledsoe |first1=Larry W. |last2= |first2= |year=2008 |title=Fighter Pilots Lived Their Dreams |journal=Airport Journal |volume= |issue= |pages= |publisher=Hansen Airport Journals LLC |doi= |url=http://www.airportjournals.com/Display.cfm?varID=0811025 |accessdate=8 March 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627035621/http://airportjournals.com/Display.cfm?varID=0811025 |archivedate=27 June 2012 |df= }}
152. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.museumofflight.org/press/world-war-ii-american-fighter-aces-museum |title=World War II American Fighter Aces at Museum |author= |date=1 July 2009 |work= |publisher=The Museum of Flight |accessdate=8 March 2012 |quote=The Museum will host a panel of three fighter pilots: Capt. Fred Ohr, who is the only American ace of Korean ancestry, and had six aerial victories and 17 ground victories; Lt. Col. Richard W. Asbury, who participated in 240 combat missions spanning three wars; and Lt. Col. Stan Richardson, who flew P-38s and P-51s in the European Theater during World War II, and participated in the D-Day Invasion. }}
153. ^{{cite web | title = 100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry | publisher = GlobalSecurity.org | url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/100-442in.htm | date = 23 May 2005 | accessdate = 27 September 2008}}
154. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_filipino.html |title=The Filipino Veterans Movement |author= |year=1996 |work=WGBH Educational Foundation |publisher=Public Broadcasting Service |accessdate=5 February 2013}}
{{cite news |title=Ron Paul to speak to Filipino WWII veterans at rally |author=Keith Rogers |url=http://www.lvrj.com/news/ron-paul-to-speak-to-filipino-wwii-veterans-at-rally-138630504.html |newspaper=Las Vegas Review-Journal |date=3 February 2013 |accessdate=5 February 2013}}
155. ^¹{{cite book |title=Maneuver and Firepower |last=Wilson |first=John B. |author2=Jeffrey J. Clarke |year=1998 |publisher=Center of Military History, United States Army |location=Washington D.C. |isbn= |page=212 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/lineage/M-F/chapter8.htm |accessdate=22 November 2009 |quote=As the nation demobilized, Congress approved, with the consent of the Philippine government, the maintenance of 50,000 Philippine Scouts (PS) as occupation forces for Japan. On 6 April 1946 Maj. Gen. Louis E. Hibbs, who had commanded the 63d Infantry Division during the war, reorganized the Philippine Division, which had surrendered on Bataan in 1942, as the 12th Infantry Division (PS). Unlike its predecessor, the 12th's enlisted personnel were exclusively Philippine Scouts.
The War Department proposed to organize a second Philippine Scout division, the 14th, but never did so. After a short period President Harry S. Truman decided to disband all Philippine Scout units, determining that they were not needed for duty in Japan. The United States could not afford them, and he felt the Republic of the Philippines, a sovereign nation, should not furnish mercenaries for the United States. Therefore, the Far East Command inactivated the 12th Infantry Division (PS) in 1947 and eventually inactivated or disbanded all Philippine Scout units. }}
156. ^{{cite book |title=In the Philippines and Okinawa: a memoir, 1945–1948 |last=Triplet |first=William S. |author2=Robert H. Ferrell |year=2001 |publisher=University of Missouri Press |isbn=978-0-8262-1335-8 |pages=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5x7wobGXI0C&dq=new+philippine+scouts+ryukyu&source=gbs_navlinks_s |accessdate=14 November 2009}}
157. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=43042 |title=Philippine Enlistment Program Sailors Reflect on Heritage |author=Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class Rialyn Rodrigo |date=1 March 2009 |website=Navy Region Southwest |publisher=United States Navy |accessdate=24 December 2014}}
{{Cite thesis |last=Maligat |first=Luisto G. |title=Study of the U.S. Navy's Philippines Enlistment Program, 1981-1991 |type= |chapter= |url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a379644.pdf |date=June 2000 |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School |access-date=24 December 2014 }}
158. ^{{cite book |title=Harry and Ike: The Partnership That Remade the Postwar World |last=Neal |first=Steve |authorlink= |year=2002 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location= |isbn=9780743223744 |page=103 |accessdate=19 August 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbcQpkhgvFIC&lpg=PA103&ots=Abj9rkHOqX&dq=desegregation%20Truman%20military%20Executive%20Order%209981&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q=desegregation%20Truman%20military%20Executive%20Order%209981&f=false }}
{{cite web |url=http://www.trumanlibrary.org/anniversaries/desegblurb.htm |title=This Day in Truman History: July 26, 1948 |author= |work=Harry S. Truman Library and Museum |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |accessdate=19 August 2012}}
159. ^¹²{{cite web |url=http://www.state.nj.us/military//korea/factsheets/asian.html |title=Asian-Americans i the United States Military during the Korean War |author= |work= |publisher=State of New Jersey |accessdate=14 February 2011}}
160. ^{{cite journal |last1=Boose Jr. |first1=Donald W. |year=2002 |title=Hills of Sacrifice: The 5th RCT in Korea |journal=Korean Studies |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=316–318 |publisher= |url=https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst;jsessionid=6631E56707A84E9DCC73B4A321FCCF89.inst1_3a?docId=5002106846 |archiveurl=http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/korean_studies/v026/26.2boose02.pdf |archivedate=March 2002 |accessdate=14 February 2011 |doi=10.1353/ks.2004.0003}}
161. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://www.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/Documents/RACE-OMB-WC.pdf |title=Active Duty Military Deaths – Race/Ethnicity Summary |author= |date=25 July 2009 |work=Defense Manpower Data Center |publisher=United States Department of Defense |accessdate=24 January 2013}}
162. ^{{cite web |title=History: Korean War |url=http://www.cabq.gov/parksandrecreation/parks/veterans-memorial-park/history/koreanwar|author=Lou Hoffman |work=The New Mexico Veterans' Memorial, Museum, & Conference Center |publisher=City of Albuquerque |accessdate=7 August 2013}}
163. ^{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/congress/2001/s032201.html |title=America's First Top Secret Hero |author=United States Congress |date=22 March 2001 |work=Congressional Record |publisher= |accessdate=14 February 2011}}
164. ^{{cite book |last=Tom |first=Lawrence |last2=Tom |first2=Brian |author3=Chinese American Museum of Northern California |title=Sacramento's Chinatown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SOXth7IZYrYC&lpg=PA95&ots=ffBdYcaLAi&dq=Chew-Mon%20Lee%20Distinguished%20Service%20Cross&pg=PA95#v=onepage&q=Chew-Mon%20Lee%20Distinguished%20Service%20Cross&f=false |accessdate= |year=2010 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |isbn=9780738580661 |page=95 }}
{{cite news |title=A Short History About Chinese American Military Veterans |author=Philip Chin |url=http://www.asianweek.com/2011/10/17/a-short-history-about-chinese-american-military-veterans/ |newspaper=Asian Week |date=17 October 2011 |accessdate=5 February 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122004308/http://www.asianweek.com/2011/10/17/a-short-history-about-chinese-american-military-veterans/ |archivedate=22 January 2013 |df=dmy-all }}
{{cite book |last=Drury |first=Bob |last2=Clavin |first2=Tom |last3=Drury |first3=Tom |title=The Last Stand of Fox Company: A True Story of U.S. Marines in Combat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TOftPVDRtIcC&lpg=PA256&ots=B_Hj0FZSu2&dq=Chew-Fan%20Lee%20Bronze%20Star%20Medal&pg=PA256#v=onepage&q=Chew-Fan%20Lee%20Bronze%20Star%20Medal&f=false |accessdate=5 February 2013 |year=2009 |publisher=Grove Press |isbn=9780802144515 |page=256 }}
{{cite web |url=http://militarytimes.com/citations-medals-awards/recipient.php?recipientid=7318 |title=Chew-Mon Lee |author= |work=Military Times Hall of Valor |publisher=Gannett Government Media Corporation |accessdate=5 February 2013 }}
{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?show=136060 |title=Uncommon Courage: Breakout at Chosin |author= |year=2010 |work=Smithsonian Channel |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |accessdate=5 February 2013 }}{{dead link|date=June 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{cite web |url=http://militarytimes.com/citations-medals-awards/recipient.php?recipientid=5719 |title=Kurt Chew-Een Lee |author= |work=Military Times Hall of Valor |publisher=Gannett Government Media Corporation |accessdate=5 February 2013 }}
165. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.goforbroke.org/about_us/about_us_news_press010306.asp |title=Colonel Young Oak Kim (U.S. Army Ret.), 86; Decorated US WWII and Korean War Veteran |author=Mary Graybill |work=Press releases |publisher=Go For Broke National Education Center |accessdate=9 December 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101029193111/http://goforbroke.org/about_us/about_us_news_press010306.asp |archivedate=29 October 2010 |df=dmy-all }}
166. ^{{cite journal |last1=Borch III |first1=Fred L. |year=2011 |title=Colonel Walter T. Tsukamoto: No Judge Advocate Loved America or the Army More |journal=The Army Lawyer |pages=1–5 |publisher=Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School |issn=0364-1287 |url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/05-2011.pdf |accessdate=25 February 2013}}
{{cite web |url=http://www.javadc.org/tsukamoto.htm |title=Colonel Walter Takeo Tsukamoto |last1=Kobayashi |first1=Doris Tsukamoto |last2=Kobayashi |first2=Charles |last3=Ashizawa |first3=Laura Kobayashi |date=15 June 2002 |publisher=Japanese American Veterans Association |accessdate=25 February 2013}}
{{cite web |url=http://www.afjag.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123255536 |title=Remembering a Japanese-American Judge Advocate: Colonel Walter Tsukamoto |last1=Hirohata |first1=Derek K. |date=12 May 2011 |work=The Judge Advocate General's Corps |publisher=United States Air Force |accessdate=25 February 2013}}
167. ^¹{{cite news |title=The Wounds of War-And Racism |author=Janet Dang |url=http://asianweek.com/120398/coverstory.html |newspaper=AsianWeek |date=3–9 December 1998 |accessdate=1 March 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707174837/http://asianweek.com/120398/coverstory.html |archivedate=7 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
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172. ^{{cite news |title=Racism against Asians persists in military |agency=Associated Press |url=http://www.telegram.com/article/20120219/NEWS/120219555/1052 |newspaper=Worcester Telegram & Gazette |date=19 February 2012 |accessdate=5 February 2013}}
173. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.deanza.edu/faculty/swensson/essays_mikekelley_myths.html |title= Myths & Misconceptions: Vietnam War Folklore |author=Michael Kelley |date=July 1998 |work=The Vietnam Conflict |publisher=De Anza College |accessdate=2 March 2011}}
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177. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.aspeninstitute.org/sites/default/files/content/docs/RAD/Filipino_Profile.pdf |title=The Filipino Diaspora in the United States |author= |date=February 2014 |website=Rockefeller-Aspen Diaspora Program |publisher=Migration Policy Institute |accessdate=25 December 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226014849/http://www.aspeninstitute.org/sites/default/files/content/docs/RAD/Filipino_Profile.pdf |archivedate=26 December 2014 |lay-url=http://www.cfo.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2523:-the-filipino-diaspora-in-the-united-states&catid=163:migrants-news&Itemid=859 |lay-date=21 October 2014 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
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178. ^{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |author= |title=Filipino Stewards Still Used by Navy, But Number Drops |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/10/25/archives/filipino-stewards-still-used-by-navy-but-number-drops.html |work=The New York Times |location= |date=25 October 1970 |access-date=22 November 2018 }}
179. ^{{cite book |last=Wilmoth |first=Janet M. |last2=London |first2=Andrew S. |title=Life Course Perspectives on Military Service |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TdqEVEtXLQC&lpg=PA85&ots=O2198U0pjL&dq=Racism%20%22Asian%22%20%22United%20States%20Military%22%20%22Korean%20War%22&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=7 February 2013 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415879415 |page=85 }}
180. ^{{cite news |last=Scharff |first=Ned |agency=Washington Star News Service |title=Filipinos Remain As White House Lackeys |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=-oseAAAAIBAJ&sjid=g8wEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2672%2C5052748 |newspaper=Daytona Beach Morning Journal |date=29 July 1974 |accessdate=24 September 2014 }}
181. ^{{cite news |last=Martin |first=Michel |title=The White House Doctor |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128694780 |newspaper=NPR |date=22 July 2014 |accessdate=24 September 2014 }}
{{cite news |author= |title=Chinese guard harasses Clinton's two valets |url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/chinatrip98/valets.htm |agency=Reuters |newspaper=The Boston Globe |date=26 June 1998 |accessdate=24 September 2014 |quote=McCurry described the Chinese guard as over-excited and said Clinton's Secret Service agents told him that the two were Clinton's personal valets, who are Filipino-Americans. }}
{{cite journal |last=Tabafunda |first=James |date=21 October 2010 |title=1st API female doctor to three U.S. presidents speaks on honoring Filipino roots |url=http://www.nwasianweekly.com/2010/10/1st-api-female-doctor-to-three-u-s-presidents-speaks-on-honoring-filipino-roots/ |journal=NorthwestAsianWeekly |volume=29 |issue=43 |accessdate=24 September 2014 }}
{{cite AV media |people=Connie Mariano |year=2010 |title=Dr. Connie Mariano, "The White House Doctor: My Patients Were Presidents - A Memoir" |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TZlIJmTCYgw |accessdate=24 September 2014 |publisher=BookTV, CSPAN }}
182. ^{{cite news |last=Rowe |first=Peter |date=27 July 2016 |title=Deep ties connect Filipinos, Navy and San Diego |url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/military/sdut-a-bridge-from-the-philippines-2015jul27-story.html |newspaper=San Diego Union-Tribune |access-date=11 October 2016 }}
183. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.deomi.org/downloadableFiles/ap1990.pdf |title=Asian-Pacific-American Heritage Week – 1990 |author= LtCol F. T. Fowler |date=December 1989 |work=Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute |publisher=Department of Defense |accessdate=4 March 2011}}
184. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.army.mil/asianpacificsoldiers/history/gulfwar.html |title=Gulf War |author= |work=Army.mil features |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
185. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.scanews.com/spot/2003/june/s667/english-news/caf-news.txt|title=Accomplished Chinese American: John Liu Fugh|accessdate=14 March 2011|publisher=St. Louis Chinese American News|author=St. Louis Chinese American News|work=Archive}}
{{cite news |title=Maj. Gen. John L. Fugh, 75, dies; served as Army's judge advocate general |author=Adam Bernstein |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/11/AR2010051104818.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=12 May 2010 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
186. ^{{cite news |title=Navy to Stop Recruiting Filipino Nationals : Defense: The end of the military base agreement with the Philippines will terminate the nearly century-old program. |author=H.G. Reza |url=http://articles.latimes.com/1992-02-27/local/me-3911_1_filipino-sailors |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=27 February 1992 |accessdate=7 February 2013}}
{{cite news |title=The Last Recruits: Philippine Citizens Take Oath in Subic Bay |author=PH2 Clayton Farrington |newspaper=All Hands |date=August 1992 }}
187. ^{{cite news |title= More Asian-Americans Signing Up For The Army |author= Lonny Shavelson |url= https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=127986892 |newspaper= NPR |date= 21 June 2010 |accessdate= 2 March 2011}}
188. ^{{cite journal |last1=Batalova |first1=Jeanne |date=15 May 2008 |title=Immigrants in the U.S. Armed Forces |url=https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/immigrants-us-armed-forces#7 |journal=Migration Information Source |publisher=Migration Policy Institute |access-date=9 April 2018 |quote=The Philippines, with 22.8 percent (14,854), accounted for the largest percentage of the foreign born in the armed forces in February 2008. In addition, 9.5 percent (6,188) of the immigrants were born in Mexico; 4.7 percent (3,064) in Jamaica; 3.1 percent (2,007) in Korea; and 2.5 percent (1,372) in the Dominican Republic. }}
189. ^{{cite news |title=Chen case: Asian-American soldiers endure bias |agency=Associated Press |url=https://online.wsj.com/article/AP5364a28cc7fb4022a204193f61c6a7e2.html |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=19 February 2012 |accessdate=24 January 2013}}
{{cite journal |last1=Test |first1=Samantha |year=2012 |title=Attention turns to Asian Americans in the military in light of recent suicides and increased enrollment |journal=Northwest Asian Weekly |volume=31 |issue=17 |publisher=Northwest Asian Weekly |url=http://www.nwasianweekly.com/2012/04/attention-turns-to-asian-americans-in-the-military-in-light-of-recent-suicides-and-increased-enrollment/ |accessdate=24 January 2013}}
190. ^{{cite news |title=Pinoy sailors in US Navy eye deployment to PH |author=Rodney Jaleco |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/global-filipino/06/18/12/pinoy-sailors-us-navy-eye-deployment-ph |newspaper=ABS-CBN |date=18 June 2012 |accessdate=19 June 2012}}
191. ^{{cite news |last=Quismundo |first=Tarra |date=26 October 2012 |title=US Navy feasts on adobo, pansit, lumpia, chopsuey |url= http://globalnation.inquirer.net/54188/us-navy-feasts-on-adobo-pansit-lumpia-chopsuey#ixzz4aUNZPHp6 | work=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date=5 March 2017 |quote=But there's certainly more adobo, lumpia, pansit and pan de sal—at least in the mess hall of the USS George Washington, thanks to the "Filipino Mafia" aboard the US Navy's Japan-based aircraft carrier on a goodwill visit to the Philippines. }}
{{cite news |last=Aben |first=Elena L. |date=6 September 2010 |title= 'Filipino mafia' on US warship |url=http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/275718/filipino-mafia-us-warship |archiveurl=http://navytoday.blogspot.com/2010/09/filipino-mafia-on-us-warship.html |archivedate=8 September 2010 | work=Manila Bulletin |access-date=5 March 2017 }}
{{cite magazine |volume=13 |year=2004 |page=19 |magazine=Filipinas |location=Daly City, California |publisher=Filipinas Pub }}
{{cite web |url=http://goatlocker.org/resources/nav/navyslang.pdf |title=Dictionary of Navy Slang |author= |website=Goatlocker.org |publisher=MMCM(SS) Greg Peterman USN Ret. |access-date=5 March 2017}}
192. ^{{cite news |last=Mishan |first=Ligaya |agency=New York Times |date=4 April 2018 |title=Filipino food finds place in America's mainstream |url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/2018/04/03/nyt/filipino-food-finds-place-in-americas-mainstream/ |work=Star-Adviser |location=Honolulu |access-date=9 April 2018 |quote=Americans of Filipino heritage now make up one in five of all Asian-Americans, second only to Chinese in number, and the largest percentage of immigrants serving in the U.S. military were born in the Philippines. }}
193. ^{{cite news |last=Heubl |first=Ben |date=29 July 2018 |title=Asian-Americans' rise through the US military ranks -- in charts |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Datawatch/Asian-Americans-rise-through-the-US-military-ranks-in-charts |work=Nikkei Asian Review |location= |access-date=4 September 2018 }}
194. ^{{cite news |last=Perry |first=Tony |date=8 May 2013 |title=Marine recruitment effort targets Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2013/may/08/nation/la-na-nn-marines-advertising-campaign-20130508 |work=Los Angeles Times |access-date=4 September 2018 }}
195. ^{{cite report |last=DeBruyne |first=Nese F. |date=26 April 2017 |title=American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RL32492.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service |page=12 |docket= |access-date=4 September 2018 |quote=Asian 62 47 6 8 1 |via=Federation of American Scientists}}
196. ^{{cite web |url=https://dcas.dmdc.osd.mil/dcas/pages/report_oef_wounded.xhtml |title=U.S. Military Casualties - Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) Wounded in Action |author= |date=4 September 2018 |work=Defense Casualty Analysis System |publisher= United States Department of Defense |accessdate=4 September 2018}}
197. ^{{cite journal |last1=Swing |first1=Peter J. |year=2001 |title=Reflections of War and a Makeshift Altar |journal=Hyphen Magazine |issue=22 |publisher=Independent Arts & Media |url=http://www.hyphenmagazine.com/magazine/issue-22-throwback/reflections-war-and-makeshift-altar?quicktabs_1=2 |accessdate=30 March 2011 }}
198. ^{{cite news |last=Tempest |first=Rone |date=25 May 2002 |title=U.S. Heroes Whose Skills Spoke Volumes |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2002/may/25/world/fg-khan25 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |accessdate=20 November 2014 }}
199. ^{{cite book |last=Lowrey |first=Colonel Nathan S. |year=2011 |title=U.S. Marines in Afghanistan, 2001-2002: From the Sea |url=http://www.mcu.usmc.mil/historydivision/Pages/Publications/Publication%20PDFs/FROM%20THE%20SEA.pdf |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=History Division, United States Marine Corps |pages=299–300 |isbn=978-0-16-089557-9 }}
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201. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.mcu.usmc.mil/historydivision/Pages/Chronologies/2004.aspx |title=Yearly Chronologies of the United States Marine Corps - 2004 |author= |website=History Division |publisher=United States Marine Corps |accessdate=20 November 2014}}
{{cite news |author=Hope Hodge |title=Recent reliefs indicate new fine line for Marine Corps commanders |url=http://www.marinecorpstimes.com/article/20130513/NEWS/305130021/Recent-reliefs-indicate-new-fine-line-Marine-Corps-commanders |newspaper=Marine Corps Times |date=13 May 2013 |accessdate=20 November 2014 }}
202. ^{{cite journal |author="Samantha Test" |date=18 April 2012 |title=Attention turns to Asian Americans in the military in light of recent suicides and increased enrollment |url=http://www.nwasianweekly.com/2012/04/attention-turns-to-asian-americans-in-the-military-in-light-of-recent-suicides-and-increased-enrollment/ |journal=Northwest Asian Weekly |volume=31 |issue=17 |accessdate=21 September 2014}}
{{cite news |last=Thompson |first=Mark |date=12 October 2011 |title=More Military Abuse in Afghanistan, Another Suicide |url=http://nation.time.com/2011/10/12/more-military-abuse-in-afghanistan-another-suicide/ |newspaper=Time |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=2 February 2012 |title=Lawmakers press for answers on hazing in military |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/military/story/2012-02-02/military-suicides/52939356/1 |newspaper=USA Today |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
203. ^{{cite news |last=Jenkins |first=Colleen |date=17 December 2012 |title=U.S. Army soldier faces discharge after Asian-American soldier's hazing |url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-12-17/news/sns-rt-us-usa-military-hazingbre8bh00i-20121217_1_danny-chen-asian-american-soldier-discharge |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |agency=Reuters |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
{{cite news |last=Nessen |first=Stephen |date=18 December 2012 |title=With Trials Complete, Little Closure for Family of Pvt. Danny Chen |url=http://www.wnyc.org/story/258180-little-closure-chinatown-community-after-danny-chen-trials/ |newspaper=WYNC |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
{{cite news |last=McAvoy |first=Audrey |agency=Associated Press |date=30 January 2012 |title=Marine gets 30 days, rank reduction for assault |url=http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2012/Jan/30/marine-gets-30-days-rank-reduction-for-assault/ |newspaper=San Diego Union Tribune |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
{{cite news |last=McAvoy |first=Audrey |date=23 February 2014 |title=Marine found not guilty in hazing suicide case: Last of three who faced court-martial in death of lance corporal in Afghanistan |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/46520079/ns/us_news-life/t/marine-found-not-guilty-hazing-suicide-case/#.VB61gZRdW8A |newspaper=NBC News |agency=Associated Press |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
204. ^{{cite news |last=Herrera |first=Craig |date=19 September 2014 |title=Navy hospital corpsman receives Silver Star at Camp Pendleton |url=http://www.10news.com/news/navy-hospital-corpsman-receives-silver-star-at-camp-pendleton-09192014 |newspaper=KOGO |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
{{cite news |last=Myers |first=Megan |date=20 September 2014 |title=Former HM3 receives Silver Star for saving Marine's life |url=http://www.navytimes.com/article/20140920/NEWS/309200031/Former-HM3-receives-Silver-Star-saving-Marine-s-life |newspaper=Navy Times |accessdate=21 September 2014 }}
205. ^{{cite web |url=http://dpc.senate.gov/dpcdoc.cfm?doc_name=fs-110-1-14 |title=Democrats Advancing the State of Our Union for Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders |author= |date=26 January 2007 |work=Democratic Policy Committee |publisher=United States Senate |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
{{cite news |title=Report: Racism towards Asian Americans persists |author= |url=http://www.sdnn.com/sandiego/2009-05-13/business-real-estate/report-racism-towards-asian-americans-persists |newspaper=San Diego News Network |date=13 May 2009 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
206. ^{{cite news|title=Mood and Anxiety Disorders Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Differences Between Military and Nonmilitary injuries |author=Ricardo E. Jorge, MD |url=http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1163519?pageNumber=2 |newspaper=Psychiatric Times |date=1 June 2008 |accessdate=29 March 2011 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20120906233128/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/display/article/10168/1163519?pageNumber=2 |archivedate= 6 September 2012 |deadurl=yes |df= }}
207. ^{{cite news |title=100th Battalion's values live on in Iraq |author=Harold P. Estabrooks |url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2005/Aug/21/op/FP508210304.html |newspaper=The Honolulu Advertiser |date=21 August 2005 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
{{cite news |title='Go For Broke' battalion swells with pride as it readies for war |author=William Cole |url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2004/Oct/03/ln/ln05a.html |newspaper=The Honolulu Advertiser |date=3 October 2004 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
208. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/inf/0442in100bn.htm |title=Lineage And Honors Information: 100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry Regiment |author= |date=14 January 2011 |work=U.S. Army Center of Military History |publisher=United States Army |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
{{cite news |title=100th Battalion marks Yule in Iraq |author= Gregg K. Kakesako |url=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/12/25/news/story09.html |newspaper= Honolulu Star-Bulletin |date= 25 December 2005 | archiveurl = http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/12/25/news/story09.html | archivedate =19 February 2011 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
209. ^{{cite news |title=Hawaii Guard troops can keep combat patches |author=William Cole |url=http://www.armytimes.com/legacy/new/1-292925-1641505.php |newspaper=Army Times |date=24 March 2006 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
{{cite news |title=Some Hawai'i citizen-soldiers must trade-in patches earned in combat |author=William Cole |url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2006/Mar/21/ln/FP603210349.html |newspaper=Honolulu Advertiser |date=21 March 2006 |accessdate=7 February 2013}}
210. ^{{cite news |title=Gold medal honors, inspires |url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/editorials/20101007_Gold_medal_honors_inspires.html |newspaper=Honolulu Star Advertiser |date=7 October 2010 |accessdate=14 March 2011}}
{{cite web |url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?r111:H07DE9-0013: |title=Recognizing Echo Company of 100th Infantry Battalion of the 442d Infantry (House of Representatives – December 07, 2009) |author= |work=Congressional Record 111th Congress (2009–2010) |publisher=Library of Congress |accessdate=8 January 2013 |quote=Whereas Company E has served with great honor and distinction for two tours in Iraq in 2004–2006 and 2008–2009; }}
211. ^{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22452.pdf |title=U.S. Military Casualty Statistics: Operation New Dawn, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and Operation Enduring Freedom |author=Hannah Fischer |date=19 February 2014 |work= |publisher=Congressional Research Service |accessdate=20 November 2014 }}
{{cite web |url=http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/oif-deaths-total.pdf |title=Operation Iraqi Freedom Military Deaths |author= |date=7 May 2012 |work=Department of Defense Personnel & Procurement Statistics |publisher=United States Department of Defense |accessdate=24 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602035034/http://siadapp.dmdc.osd.mil/personnel/CASUALTY/oif-deaths-total.pdf |archivedate=2 June 2011 |df=dmy-all }}
212. ^{{cite news|title=Lyman Brothers, First Asian Americans to Gain General's Rank |author=Lisa Wong Macabasco |url=http://www.asianweek.com/2008/01/22/lyman-brothers-first-asian-americans-to-gain-general%E2%80%99s-rank/ |newspaper=Asian Week |date=22 January 2008 |accessdate=2 May 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604192312/http://www.asianweek.com/2008/01/22/lyman-brothers-first-asian-americans-to-gain-general%E2%80%99s-rank/ |archivedate= 4 June 2011 |df= }}
213. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.history.navy.mil/special%20Highlights/asian/API-12Apr11.pdf |title=Asians Asians and Pacific Islanders and in the United States Navy |author= |date=12 April 2011 |work=Naval History & Heritage Command |publisher=United States Navy |accessdate=1 May 2011 |quote=Gordon Chung-Hoon, a Hawaiian-born Chinese American and a 1934 U.S. Naval Academy graduate, was the first Asian American to command a Navy warship, USS Sigsbee (dd 502). When a kamikaze attacked caused explosions and flooding on board the destroyer, Chung-Hoon directed damage control, enabling the crew to save the ship. Awarded the Navy Cross for his actions, he was later promoted to rear admiral, making him the first Asian American flag officer. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505005500/http://www.history.navy.mil/special%20Highlights/asian/API-12Apr11.pdf |archivedate=5 May 2011 |df= }}
214. ^{{cite journal |year=2012 |title=Meet the Generals and Admirals |journal=JAVA Advocate |volume=XX |issue=3 |pages=10 |publisher=Japanese American Veterans Association |url=http://javadc.org/media/document/java-advocate/JAVA-Advocate-Fall-2012.pdf |accessdate=21 January 2013 }}
215. ^{{cite news |last1=Harper |first1=Jon |last2=Tritten |first2=Travis J. |date=30 May 2014 |title=VA Secretary Eric Shinseki resigns |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/us/va-secretary-eric-shinseki-resigns-1.286217 |newspaper=Stars and Stripes |publisher= |accessdate=25 June 2014 }}
216. ^{{cite news |title=Obama to Name Eric Shinseki to Head Veteran Affairs (Update1) |author=Julianna Goldman |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aAJN0eI6vj9Y |newspaper=Bloomberg |date=6 December 2008 |accessdate=2 May 2011 |quote=Shinseki, who served in the Army for 38 years, became the highest-ranking Asian-American in U.S. military history when he was named chief of staff in 1999. }}
217. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/static/reportimages/3E59D41279449CAB99F8C7CF54E02351.gif |title=Racial Composition of New Enlisted Recruits in 2006 and 2007 |author= |year=2008 |work= |publisher=The Heritage Foundation |accessdate=11 June 2011}}
218. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.westpoint.edu/Dcomm/PressReleasesbd/nr41-10class_of_2014_RDay.html |title=News Release |author=Public Affairs Office |date=21 June 2010 |work= |publisher=United States Military Academy |accessdate=11 June 2011}}
219. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.usna.edu/admissions/USNA%202014%20Class%20Portrait.pdf |title=2014 Class Portrait |author= |work= |publisher=United States Naval Academy |accessdate=11 June 2011}}
220. ^{{cite news |title=Focus on newcomers: Class of 2014 |author=Tammie Adams |url=http://csmng.com/2010/07/02/focus-on-newcomers-class-of-2014/ |newspaper=Colorado Springs Military Newspaper Group |date=2 July 2010 |accessdate=11 June 2011}}