“List of loanwords in Tagalog”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Tagalog language has developed a unique vocabulary since its inception from its Austronesian roots. According to lexographer Jose Villa Panganiban, "of the 30,000 root words in the Tagalog language, there are close to 4,000 from Spanish, 3,000 from Malay, 2,000 from English, 2,000 from both Hokkien (Min Nan) and Yue Chinese dialects, 300 from Tamil and Sanskrit, 200 from Arabic, 10 percent of Tagalog is from Nahuatl (Aztec) origins,^[1]{{Unreliable source?|date=February 2019}} and a few hundred altogether from other languages".

Spanish

The Filipino language incorporated Spanish loanwords as a result of 333 years of contact with the Spanish language. In their review of a Pilipino-English dictionary, Llamzon and Thorpe (1972) point out that 40% of word roots are of Spanish origin.^[2] An example is the sentence below in which Spanish–derived words are in italics (original in parentheses):

The adoption of the Abakada alphabet in 1940^[3] changed the spelling of most of the Spanish loanwords present in the Filipino language. The loanwords derived from the Spanish language have their original spellings indigenized according to the rules of the Abakada alphabet. Examples include agila (from Sp. águila), alkalde (from Sp. alcalde), bakuna (from Sp. vacuna), banyo (from Sp. baño), baso (from Sp. vaso), biktima (from Sp. víctima), bintana (from Sp. ventana), bisita (from Sp. visita), biyahe (from Sp. viaje), braso (from Sp. brazo), demokrasya (from Sp. democracia), diyaryo (from Sp. diario), estudyante (from Sp. estudiante), heneral (from Sp. general), hustisya (from Sp. justicia), kama (from Sp. cama), kambiyo (from Sp. cambio de marcha), keso (from Sp. queso), kutsara (from Sp. cuchara), kuwarto (from Sp. cuarto), kuwento (from Sp. cuento), lababo (from Sp. lavabo), mensahe (from Sp. mensaje), meryenda (from Sp. merienda), mikrobyo (from Sp. microbio), niyebe (from Sp. nieve), panyo (from Sp. paño), pila (from Sp. fila), plema (from Sp. flema), presyo (from Sp. precio), prinsesa (from Sp. princesa), reseta (from Sp. receta médica), reyna (from Sp. reina), serbisyo (from Sp. servicio), sinturon (from Sp. cinturón), teklado (from Sp. teclado), telebisyon (from Sp. televisión), tinidor (from Sp. tenedor), trabaho (from Sp. trabajo), tuwalya (from Sp. toalla) and yelo (from Sp. hielo).^[4]^[5]^[6]

Other loanwords derived from the Spanish language underwent spelling and pronunciation changes. Vowel changes can be observed to some of the Spanish words upon adoption into the Filipino language. For example, an /i/ to /a/ vowel shift can be observed in the Filipino word paminta, which came from the Spanish word pimienta.^[4] A rare vowel change from /e/ to /u/ can be observed in the words unano (from Sp. enano) and umpisa (from Sp. empezar). Other words derived from Spanish underwent vowel deletion upon adoption into the Filipino language, such as the words pusta (from Sp. apostar), tarantado (from Sp. atarantado), kursonada (from Sp. corazonada), Pasko (from Sp. Pascua) and labi (from Sp. labio).^[4] Consonant shifts can also be observed to some of the Spanish words upon their adoption into the Filipino language. The [r] to [l] consonant shift can be observed in the following words: albularyo (witch doctor or folk healer, from Sp. herbolario), alma (from Sp. armar), almusal (from Sp. almorzar), asukal (from Sp. azúcar), balbas (from Sp. barba), bandila (from. Sp. bandera), dasal (from Sp. rezar), hibla (thread or strand, from Sp. hebra), hilo (dizzy, from Sp. giro), hulmá (to mould, from Sp. ahormar), kasal (from Sp. casar), kumpisal (from Sp. confesar), litratista (photographer, from Sp. retratista), litrato (photograph, portrait or picture; from Sp. retrato), multo (from Sp. muerto), nunal (from Sp. lunar), pastol (from Sp. pastor) and pasyal (from Sp. pasear). The loss of the /l/ phoneme can be observed in the Filipino word kutson derived from the Spanish colchón. The loss of the /t/ phoneme can be observed in the Filipino words talino^[7] (intelligence or wisdom, from Sp. talento) and tina^[8] (dye, from Sp. tinta). Some Spanish-derived words have also undergone consonant or syllable deletion upon introduction to Tagalog like in the case of limos (from Sp. limosna), masyado (from Sp. demasiado), posas (from Sp. esposas), restawran (from Sp. restaurante), riles (rail, railway or railroad; from Sp. carriles), sindi (from Sp. third-person singular present tense conjugation of the verb encender) and sintunado (from Sp. desentonado).^[5]

The Spanish digraph [ll] is pronounced by the Spaniards as /j/ during the Renaissance era and this reflected on the pronunciation and the spelling of Spanish-derived loanwords in Tagalog introduced before the 19th century, where the digraph [ll] becomes [y] in Tagalog.^[9] Such is the case of the words barya (from Sp. barilla), kabayo (from Sp. caballo), kutamaya (from. Sp. cota de malla), lauya (a stew of meat and vegetables, from Sp. la olla), sibuyas (from Sp. cebollas) and tabliya or tablea (from Sp. tablilla de chocolate). Spanish loanwords in which the digraph [ll] is pronounced as /lj/ in Tagalog were probably introduced (or reintroduced) during the 19th century by educated Peninsulares.^[9] Examples include apelyido (from Sp. apellido), balyena (from Sp. ballena), kalye (from Sp. calle), kutsilyo (from Sp. cuchillo), makinilya (from Sp. maquinilla de escribir), sepilyo (from Sp. cepillo de dientes), silya (from Sp. silla) and sigarilyo (from Sp. cigarrillo).^[9] There are also instances of the Spanish digraph [ll] being transformed into [l] upon adoption by Tagalog. Such is the case of the following words: kulani (lymph node, from Sp. collarín^[10]), kursilista (from Sp. cursillista) and úling (coal, soot or charcoal; from Sp. hollín^[11]).

Others have morphed like 'ku(ha)nin' (Sp.: 'coja' + Tag.: '–nin'), which has inconspicuously developed into another pure Tagalog–sounding word. Another one is maámong kordero (from Sp. amo & cordero). Combined together, it conveys the description of a meek, tame, harmless human with Tagalog adjective prefix and suffix added. The compound word batya't palo–palo, a must word in the laundry business where many Spanish words proliferate. The words were taken from the Spanish batea for "washing tub" and palo for "stick" or "beater", something a typical Filipino might think had no Spanish provenance at all. Others are umpisa (empieza), pulubi (pobre), pader (pared).

Some have acquired an entirely new meaning, such as kursonada (corazonada, originally meaning '"hunch"), which means "object of desire"; sospetsoso (sospechoso) is the "suspicious person" and not the "suspect" as in the original; insekto ("insecto"), which still means "insect" but also refers to a "pesty clownish person"; or even sige (sigue), a Spanish word for "continue" or "follow", which is now widely understood to mean "all right" or "go ahead".

Others use Spanish prefixes and/or suffixes, combined from Tagalog or other languages, without which the word can not be completed and convey its meaning. For example, pakialamero (from Tag. pakialam, "to meddle" and the Sp. suffix –ero, masculine subject); same as majongero ("mahjong", a Chinese word and the Sp. suffix –ero). Daisysiete is a corruption and portmanteau of the English "daisy" and the Spanish diecisiete ("seventeen"), now meaning a sweet and sexually desirable underaged (below 18, hence the number) female. Bastusing katawán (Sp.: basto & Tag.: katawan) is an example of a two-word term for a bombshell body

Even after the Spanish era, Tagalog is still being influenced by Spanish as new words are coined, albeit along its own terms, viz., alaskadór ("Alaska" + Sp. suffix '–ador'); barkada (from Sp.: barca,"boat" to "clique"); bérde ("verde"="green", nuanced to "toilet humour" or "blue joke"); which are not readily understood in Spain or any Latin American country. In a strange twist, even if Filipinos have a chance to Tagalized words using foreign words, currently English—their most accessible influence—they coin words in a uniquely Hispanizing way i.e. "boksingero" (from Eng. "boxing") instead of using the Spanish "boxeador". Or "basketbolista" (from Eng. "basketball"), instead of borrowing from Spanish "baloncesto" to make it say "baloncestista" or "baloncestador" (although basketball "básquetbol" in many Latin American countries).

Here are some examples of Spanish–derived Tagalog words in the following format:

Word (Etymology – Original Definition/s if different from Nuanced Definition. = Derivative Definition if Compound Words) – Nuanced Definition. Shared Definition precedes Nuanced Definition if both exist.

Note that the first syllable of loanwords from Spanish that start with /aw/ are also sometimes pronounced and spelled /o/ (e.g. 'otonomiya' rather than 'awtonomiya') due to the predominance of pronunciation of loanwords from English.

Latin

Greek

Hebrew

Loanwords that underwent semantic shift

Upon adoption into Tagalog, a number of Spanish-derived terms underwent a process of semantic shift or change in meaning. A loanword is said to have undergone a semantic shift if its meaning in Tagalog deviates from the original meaning of the word in the source language (in this case, Spanish). A type of semantic shift is the so-called semantic narrowing, which is a linguistic phenomenon in which the meaning of a Spanish-derived word acquires a less general or inclusive meaning upon adoption into Tagalog. Semantic narrowing occurs when a word undergoes specialization of usage. For example, the word kuryente (meaning "electricity" or "electric current") comes from the Spanish word corriente, which is a general term to refer to any current, whether electric or not. Upon adoption of the word corriente into Tagalog as kuryente, it underwent a semantic narrowing and its usage became restricted to refer only to an electric current, unlike its Spanish counterpart. Another example of a semantic narrowing is the Tagalog word ruweda (meaning "Ferris wheel"), a term derived from the Spanish word rueda which refers to any kind of wheel. Upon adoption into Tagalog, ruweda underwent usage specialization and its meaning became restricted to the Ferris wheel.

Semantic shift may also occur through semantic interference by another language, usually the English language. This phenomenon can result into reinterpretation of a Spanish-derived term by attributing to it an English meaning upon assimilation into Tagalog. An example is the Tagalog word libre, which is derived from the Spanish translation of the English word free, although used in Tagalog with the meaning of "without cost or payment" or "free of charge", a usage which would be deemed incorrect in Spanish as the term gratis would be more fitting. Another example is the Tagalog word iskiyerda, derived from the Spanish term izquierda meaning "left" as opposed to "right", although used in Tagalog with the meaning of "to leave".

Here is the list of Spanish-derived words which underwent semantic shift upon assimilation into Tagalog:

Tagalog words derived from pluralized Spanish nouns

Some of the Spanish loanwords in Tagalog appear in their pluralized form, marked with -s or -es. However, in Tagalog, such words are not considered as plural and when they are pluralized in Tagalog, they need to be pluralized in the way that Tagalog pluralizes native words, i.e., by placing the pluralization marker mga before the word^[18]. For example, the word butones (meaning button used in clothing, from Sp. botones) is considered singular in Tagalog and its plural form is mga butones.

Tagalog words derived from Spanish verbs

Several Spanish verbs are also adopted into Tagalog. Most of them are in their infinitive form characterized by the deletion of their final /r/, like for example in the case of the Tagalog intindi (to understand) derived from the Spanish verb entender^[23]. This feature is also found in Chavacano verbs which have a Spanish origin and it can be argued that an already restructured form of Spanish (Chavacano or a pidgin) was the origin of these Tagalog words^[24]. A list of these loanwords can be viewed below.

Alternatively, upon adoption into Tagalog, the final /r/ of the Spanish verbs in their infinitive form becomes /l/. Such is the case of the following loanwords: almusal (to have breakfast, from Sp. almorzar), dasal (from Sp. rezar), kasal (from Sp. casar), kumpisal (from Sp. confesar), minindal (from Sp. merendar), pasyal (from Sp. pasear) and sugal (from Sp. jugar). In some cases, the final /r/ remains unaltered in the Tagalog form like in the case of andar (to set in action or motion; from Sp. andar), asar (to annoy or to verbally irritate; from Sp. asar) and pundar (to establish or to save money for something; from Sp. fundar).

Conjugated Spanish verbs are also adopted into Tagalog. Examples include: kúha (from Sp. coger), pára (from Sp. parar), pása (from Sp. pasar), puwede (from Sp. poder), tíra (from Sp. tirar) and sige (from Sp. seguir). Imbiyerna (meaning to annoy or to irritate someone) is derived from the Spanish verb infernar (meaning to irritate or to provoke) and was allegedly coined by Ricardo "Rikki" Dalu, originally to describe the hellish feeling and the frustration he experienced when attending Spanish classes^[25]. In some cases, the conjugated verbs are combined with another word to form Tagalog morphemes like in the case of the following words: asikaso (from the combination of Sp. hacer and Sp. caso), balewala or baliwala (from the combination of Sp. valer and Tag. wala), etsapwera (from the combination of Sp. echar and Sp. fuera) and kumusta (from the combination of Sp. cómo and Sp. estar).

Spanish-Tagalog hybrid compound terms

Some Tagalog compound terms are actually formed through a combination of a native Tagalog term and an etymologically Spanish term, like in the case of the idiomatic expression balat-sibuyas (a term referring to a person's easiness to be offended), which is a combination of the Tagalog balat and Spanish cebolla. The linguist Ekaterina Baklanova distinguishes at least two types of Spanish-Tagalog compound terms: hybrid loanwords^[27] or mixed-borrowings^[28] are partially translated Spanish terms which are adopted into Tagalog, e.g. karnerong-dagat (derived from the Spanish term carnero marino, meaning "seal") and anemonang-dagat (derived from the Spanish term anémona de mar, meaning "sea anemone"), while hybrid neologisms^[29]^[30] are new terms invented by Filipinos with use of some native and already assimilated Spanish-derived material, e.g. pader-ilog, meaning "embankment", derived from the combination of the Tagalog word ilog (meaning "river") and Spanish word pared (meaning "wall" and adopted in Tagalog as the word pader).

Below is the list of some Spanish-Tagalog hybrid compound terms. Because of the lack of standardization, some of the compound terms listed below are written differently (i.e. without the hyphen) in other Tagalog-based literature. For example, while the term sirang-plaka is usually encountered in many Tagalog-based works without the hyphen, there are also some instances of the term being written with the hyphen like in the case of one of the books written by the Chairman of the Commission on the Filipino Language Virgilio Almario, entitled Filipino ng mga Filipino: mga problema sa ispeling, retorika, at pagpapayaman ng wikang pambansa. Another example is the term takdang-oras, which can also be encountered in the literature without the hyphen. As a rule, a hybrid compound term below will be hyphenated if it has at least one instance of it being written with the hyphen in Tagalog-based literary works.

English

English has been used in everyday Tagalog conversation. This kind of conversation is called Taglish. English words borrowed by Tagalog are mostly modern and technical terms, but English words are also used for short usage (many Tagalog words translated from English are very long) or to avoid literal translation and repetition of the same particular Tagalog word. English makes the second largest vocabulary of Tagalog after Spanish. In written language, English words in a Tagalog sentence are written as they are, but they are sometimes written in Tagalog phonetic spelling. Here are some examples:

Malay

Many Malay loanwords entered the Tagalog vocabulary during pre-colonial times as Old Malay became the lingua franca of trade, commerce and diplomatic relations during the pre-colonial era of Philippine history as evidenced by the Laguna Copperplate Inscription of 900 AD and accounts of Pigafetta at the time of the Spanish arrival in the country five centuries later.

Sanskrit

As in most Austronesian languages, the Sanskrit vocabulary incorporated into Tagalog are mostly borrowed indirectly via Malay or Javanese.^[44] Examples include:

Tamil

Arabic and Persian

Chinese

Many of the Chinese loanwords in Tagalog are derived from Hokkien, the Southern Chinese variety spoken in the Philippines. Most of the 163 Hokkien-derived terms collected and analyzed by Gloria Chan-Yap are fairly recent and do not appear in the earliest Spanish dictionaries of Tagalog^[46]. Many of the Hokkien-derived loanwords like pancit^[47] entered the Tagalog vocabulary during the Spanish colonial era when the Philippines experienced an increased influx of Chinese immigrants (mostly from the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong in Southern China^[48]) as Manila became an international entrepôt with the flourishing of the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade^[49]^[50]. Attractive economic opportunities boosted Chinese immigration to Spanish Manila and the new Chinese settlers brought with them their skills, culinary traditions and language, with the latter then influencing the native languages of the Philippines in the form of loanwords, most of which are related to cookery^[51]^[52]. On the other hand, only few of the Chinese loanwords are derived from Mandarin^[46].

Japanese

There are very few Tagalog words that are derived from Japanese^[59]. Many of them are introduced as recently as the twentieth century like tansan^[60] (bottle cap, from the Japanese 炭酸 which originally means refers to soda and carbonated drinks) and karaoke (from the Japanese カラオケ, literally means "empty orchestra") although there are very few Japanese words that appear in the earliest Spanish dictionaries of Tagalog such as katana (Japanese sword, from the Japanese かたな with the same meaning).

Some Filipino jokes are based on comical reinterpretation of Japanese terms as Tagalog words like for example in the case of otousan (from the Japanese お父さん meaning "father") which is reinterpreted as utusan (meaning "servant" or "maid") in Tagalog^[61]. As for the Tagalog word Japayuki, it refers to the Filipino migrants who flocked to Japan starting in the 1980s to work as entertainers and it is a portmanteau of the English word Japan and the Japanese word yuki (or 行き, meaning "going" or "bound to").

Nahuatl

Tagalog gained Nahuatl words through Spanish from the Galleon trade with Mexico during the Hispanic era.^[65]

See also

References

1. ^{{Cite news|url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2017/06/28/mexico-our-older-sister/|title=Mexico, our older sister|work=Manila Bulletin News|access-date=2018-04-13|language=en-US}}
2. ^{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Roger M. |authorlink=Roger M. Thompson |date=2003 |title=Filipino, English and Taglish - Language switching from multiple perspectives}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://wika.pbworks.com/Kasaysayan |title=Ebolusyon ng Alpabetong Filipino |accessdate=2010-06-22}}
4. ^¹²{{cite book |last1=Forastieri Braschi |first1=Eduardo |authorlink1=Eduardo Forastieri Braschi |last2=Cardona |first2=Julia |last3=López Morales |first3=Humberto |title=Estudios de lingüística hispánica : homenaje a María Vaquero}}
5. ^¹{{cite book |last1=Quilis |first1=Antonio |authorlink1=Antonio Quilis |last2=Casado-Fresnillo |first2=Celia |title=La lengua española en Filipinas. Historia. Situación actual. El chabacano. Antología de textos}}
6. ^{{cite book |last=Alcantara y Antonio |first=Teresita |title=Mga hispanismo sa Filipino: batay sa komunikasyong pangmadla ng Filipinas : pag-aaral lingguwistiko |publisher=Diliman, Quezon City : Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, Unibersidad ng Pilipinas |isbn=978-9718781777 |author-link=Teresita Alcantara y Antonio|year=1999 }}
7. ^{{cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Cecilio |title=The Spanish overlay in Tagalog |journal=Lingua |date=1 January 1965 |volume=14 |page=481 |doi=10.1016/0024-3841(65)90058-6 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024384165900586 |language=en |issn=0024-3841}}
8. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - d |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_d.htm?zoom_highlight=tina |website=www.trussel2.com |language=en |quote=Apparently a phonologically modified borrowing of Spanish tinta ‘dye’.}}
9. ^¹²{{cite book |last=Potet |first=Jean-Paul G. |title=Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates |publisher=lulu.com |isbn=978-1326615796 |author-link=Jean-Paul G. Potet|date=2016-06-25 }}
10. ^{{cite book |last1=Potet |first1=Jean-Paul G. |title=Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates |date=2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781326615796 |pages=318–319 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jvOjDAAAQBAJ&dq=kulani+collarin |language=en}}
11. ^{{cite book |last1=Alcantara y Antonio |first1=Teresita |title=Mga hispanismo sa Filipino: batay sa komunikasyong pangmadla ng Filipinas : pag-aaral lingguwistiko |date=1999 |publisher=Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, Unibersidad ng Pilipinas |isbn=9789718781777 |page=86 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=s59kAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}
12. ^{{cite book|last1=K|first1=Lim T.|title=Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants: Volume 1, Fruits|date=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9789048186617|page=472|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tixF72IuRFwC&dq=%22abelyana%22|language=en}}
13. ^{{cite book |last1=Schachter |first1=Paul |last2=Otanes |first2=Fe T. |title=Tagalog Reference Grammar |date=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=9780520049437 |page=514 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=E8tApLUNy94C&dq=inauthor:%22Fe+T.+Otanes%22 |language=tl}}
14. ^{{cite web |last1=Vos |first1=Frederik and Fiona De |title=Tagalog Pwera sa, Maliban sa |url=https://learningtagalog.com/grammar/other_describing_words/expressing_contrast/pwera_sa_maliban_sa.html |website=learningtagalog.com |language=en}}
15. ^{{cite web |title=Common Names Summary - Lactarius lactarius |url=https://www.fishbase.de/ComNames/CommonNameSummary.php?autoctr=37007 |website=www.fishbase.de |language=en |quote=Remarks: Also spelled 'Algudon'. 'algodon' borrowed from Spanish 'algodón', i.e., cotton.}}
16. ^{{cite web |title=GabbyDictionary.com |url=http://www.gabbydictionary.com/ |website=www.gabbydictionary.com |language=en |quote=mouse pad -- almohadilya (Sp.: almohadilla)}}
17. ^{{cite web |last1=Orosa |first1=Rosalinda L. |title=Victory Liner takes you to 'Perya Nostalgia' {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/sunday-life/2014/03/09/1298593/victory-liner-takes-you-perya-nostalgia |website=philstar.com |language=en |quote=In this day and age of throwbacks and flashbacks on social media, perya enthusiasts would be pleased to still find classic carnival rides like the tsubibo (carousel), ruweda (Ferris wheel), the tame rollercoaster dubbed the Caterpillar, the topsy-turvy Octopus, and the Flying Swing.}}
18. ^{{cite journal |last1=Bundang |first1=Rebekah |title=Spanish Loanwords in Tagalog |url=https://scholarship.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/handle/10066/10641 |page=10 |date=1997}}
19. ^¹{{cite book |last1=Potet |first1=Jean-Paul G. |title=Arabic and Persian Loanwords in Tagalog |date=2013 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781291457261 |page=204 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=1i-bBQAAQBAJ |language=en}}
20. ^{{cite book |last1=Blanco |first1=Manuel |title=Flora de Filipinas: según el sistema sexual de Linneo |date=1837 |publisher=en la imprenta de Sto. Thomas, por Candido Lopez |page=326 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Y7fzUr7DXSIC&pg=PA326&dq=lanzon+filipinas#v=onepage&q=lanzon%20filipinas&f=false |language=es |quote=El fruto del lanzón cultivado, no deja ser sabroso: su corteza despide una leche pegajosa, y las semillas son verdes y amargas. Es conocido de todos en las Islas; pero ignoro si la palabra lanzones ó lansones es extranjera ó del país: ella tiene semejanza con lasona, que es cebolla}}
21. ^{{cite book |last1=Penido |first1=Miguel Colmeiro y |title=Diccionario de los diversos nombres vulgares de muchas plantas usuales ó notables del antiguo y nuevo mundo, con la correspondencia científica y la indicacion abreviada de los unos é igualmente de la familia á que pertenece cada planta |date=1871 |publisher=G. Alhambra |page=173 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=gxIlAQAAMAAJ&dq=seguidillas+filipinas+psophocarpus |language=es}}
22. ^{{cite book |last1=Garcia |first1=J. Neil C |title=Philippine gay culture: binabae to bakla, silahis to MSM |date=2008 |publisher=University of the Philippines Press |isbn=9789715425773 |page=134 |language=English |quote=It roughly translates to "bisexual", although as with bakla, the cultural marker of this particular variety of sexual being is mostly not sexuality per se, but predictably enough, gender: the silahis is a male who looks every bit like a "real man" - he may even be married and with a family - but who, in all this time, would rather swish and wear skirts and scream "like a woman".|oclc=300977671 }}
23. ^{{cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Cecilio |title=The Spanish overlay in Tagalog |journal=Lingua |date=1 January 1965 |volume=14 |page=477 |doi=10.1016/0024-3841(65)90058-6 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0024384165900586 |language=en |issn=0024-3841}}
24. ^{{cite book |last1=Stolz |first1=Thomas |last2=Bakker |first2=Dik |last3=Salas Palomo |first3=Rosa |title=Hispanisation: the impact of Spanish on the lexicon and grammar of the indigenous languages of Austronesia and the Americas |date=2008 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=9783110207231 |page=209 |oclc=651862960 }}
25. ^{{cite web |last1=Cariño |first1=Linda Grace |title=How Swardspeak was born, truly-ly! {{!}} Philstar.com |url=https://www.philstar.com/lifestyle/sunday-life/2008/05/04/60073/how-swardspeak-was-born-truly-ly |website=philstar.com}}
26. ^{{cite book |last1=Bello |first1=Walden F. |last2=Guzman |first2=Alfonso de |title=Modernization: Its Impact in the Philippines |date=1971 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |page=39 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=mZ0bAQAAMAAJ |language=en |quote=The state of the body A, together with the state of nature B, leads to disorder X; e.g., hunger together with getting wet causes pasmá (< Spanish pasmar 'to astonish, to cause spasms').}}
27. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baklanova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Morphological assimilation of borrowings in Tagalog |journal=SIL International |date=24 January 2013 |page=10 |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/25695 |language=en |quote=While adopting a borrowing the recipient language may replace some part of the borrowing (mostly the root or its part) with the native lexical material, thus making a HYBRID LOANWORD. In the case of Tagalog borrowed morphemes may be substituted with those of PREVIOUSLY ASSIMILATED loanwords, thus some of the Tagalog hybrid loans consist only of borrowed material}}
28. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baklanova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Types of Borrowings in Tagalog/Filipino |journal=Kritika Kultura |volume=0 |date=20 March 2017 |issue=28 |pages=42–43 |doi=10.13185/KK2017.02803 |url=https://journals.ateneo.edu/index.php/kk/article/view/KK2017.02803 |language=en}}
29. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baklanova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Morphological assimilation of borrowings in Tagalog |journal=SIL International |date=24 January 2013 |page=10 |url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/25695 |language=en |quote=There are much more HYBRID NEOLOGISMS (CREATIONS) in the modern Tagalog, i.e. new words invented by Filipinos with use of some native and already assimilated borrowed material.}}
30. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baklanova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Types of Borrowings in Tagalog/Filipino |journal=Kritika Kultura |volume=0 |date=20 March 2017 |issue=28 |page=45 |doi=10.13185/KK2017.02803 |url=https://journals.ateneo.edu/index.php/kk/article/view/KK2017.02803 |language=en}}
31. ^¹{{cite book|title=Sawikaan 2007: Mga Salita ng Taon|url=https://books.google.com/?id=g5HlBDjb8b0C&dq=lobat+and+miskol|isbn=9789715425834|year=2008}}
32. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baklanova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Types of Borrowings in Tagalog/Filipino |journal=Kritika Kultura |date=20 March 2017 |volume=0 |issue=28 |page=42 |doi=10.13185/KK2017.02803 |language=en |issn=1656-152X}}
33. ^{{cite book |last1=POTET |first1=Jean-Paul G. |title=Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs |date=2018 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9780244348731 |page=214 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ca5XDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}
34. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - c |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_c.htm?zoom_highlight=tagalog+bi-bi%C5%8Bka |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=Borrowing, most likely from Malay. Under this hypothesis the consistent partial reduplication in Philippine forms is unexplained, but no borrowing hypothesis in the other direction appears plausible.}}
35. ^{{cite book |last1=Hall |first1=D. G. E |last2=Cowan |first2=C. D |last3=Wolters |first3=O. W |title=Southeast Asian history and historiography: essays presented to D.G.E. Hall |date=1976 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0801408410 |page=353 |language=English|oclc=2185469 }}
36. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - c |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_C.htm?zoom_highlight=bunso%CA%94 |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=Borrowing from Malay.}}
37. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - o |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_o.htm?zoom_highlight=hatol |website=www.trussel2.com}}
38. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baklanova |first1=Ekaterina |title=Types of Borrowings in Tagalog/Filipino |journal=Kritika Kultura |date=20 March 2017 |volume=0 |issue=28 |page=37 |doi=10.13185/KK2017.02803 |language=en |issn=1656-152X |quote=Mal. /kanan/ (< *ka-wanan) [Wolff 1976]}}
39. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - m |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_M.htm?zoom_highlight=kulambo%CA%94 |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff (1938) reconstructed *kulambu ‘curtain’.}}
40. ^{{cite book |last1=POTET |first1=Jean-Paul G. |title=Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates |date=2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781326615796 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jvOjDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
41. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - m |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_m.htm?zoom_highlight=calcium+carbonate |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=Also Balinese pijar ‘borax, solder’. Borrowing from Malay.}}
42. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - g |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_g.htm?zoom_highlight=patianak |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=The forms cited here are conspicuous for their multiple phonological irregularities and apparent morphological reanalyses. This strongly suggests that the form has been borrowed, probably from Malay. According to Alton L. Becker (p.c.) a similar folk belief is found in Burma. If true it is tempting to hypothesize that the puntianak belief was ultimately borrowed by speakers of an early form of Malay from a mainland Southeast Asian source and subsequently disseminated through much of island Southeast Asia.}}
43. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - c |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_C.htm?zoom_highlight=usap |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=Borrowing from Malay. Dempwolff's (1934-38) inclusion of Fijian vosa 'speak, talk' under a reconstruction *ucap 'speak, converse with' appears unjustified.}}
44. ^{{cite book |last=Haspelmath |first=Martin |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook |url= |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |page=724 |isbn=978-3110218435 |author-link= |year=2009 }}
45. ^{{cite book |last1=Potet |first1=Jean-Paul G. |title=Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates |date=2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781326615796 |pages=73,191 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jvOjDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
46. ^¹{{cite book |last1=POTET |first1=Jean-Paul G. |title=Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates |date=2016 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=9781326615796 |page=334 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jvOjDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}
47. ^{{cite book |last1=Albala |first1=Ken |title=Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia |date=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313376269 |page=217 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=NTo6c_PJWRgC |language=en |quote=Pancit (also spelled pansit), or noodles, is a main-stay ingredient that has undergone significant adaptations in the preparation process. Filipinos use different types of noodles, such as those made from rice, egg, wheat, and mung beans, to make various pancit dishes. Introduced by the Chinese during the Spanish period, the dish has been Filipinized, and various regions have come up with their own versions as well.}}
48. ^{{cite journal |last1=Pacho |first1=Arturo |title=The Chinese Community in the Philippines: Status and Conditions |journal=Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia |date=1986 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=76–91 |jstor=41056696 |doi=10.1355/SJ1-1E }}
49. ^{{cite journal |last1=Wickberg |first1=Edgar |title=Early Chinese Economic Influence in the Philippines, 1850–1898 |journal=Pacific Affairs |date=1962 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=275–285 |quote=It is known that the arrival of the Spanish in the late sixteenth century provided attractive economic opportunities which stimulated Chinese immigration to the Philippines in much greater volume than ever before. By the beginning of the seventeenth century there were over 20,000 Chinese in the Manila area - a number many times that of the Spanish settler.|jstor=2753187 }}
50. ^{{cite book |last1=Sánchez de Mora |first1=Antonio |title=Sabores que cruzaron los océanos = Flavors that sail across the seas |date=2016 |publisher=AECID Biblioteca Digital AECID |page=64 |language=English|oclc=973021471 }}
51. ^{{cite book |last1=Chan-Yap |first1=Gloria |title=Hokkien Chinese borrowings in Tagalog |date=1980 |publisher=Dept. of Linguistics, School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=9780858832251 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lU4HAQAAIAAJ |language=en |quote=The number of loanwords in the domain of cookery is rather large, and they are, by far, the most homogeneous of the loanwords.}}
52. ^{{cite book |last1=Joaquin |first1=Nick |title=Culture and history |date=2004 |publisher=Pasig City |isbn=978-9712714269 |page=42 |language=English|oclc=976189040 }}
53. ^¹{{cite book |last1=Chan-Yap |first1=Gloria |title=Hokkien Chinese borrowings in Tagalog |date=1980 |publisher=Dept. of Linguistics, School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=9780858832251 |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lU4HAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}
54. ^{{cite book |last1=Chan-Yap |first1=Gloria |title=Hokkien Chinese borrowings in Tagalog |date=1980 |publisher=Dept. of Linguistics, School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=9780858832251 |page=133 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lU4HAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}
55. ^{{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=William Henry |title=Barangay sixteenth-century Philippine culture and society |date=1994 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |isbn=978-9715501354 |page=201 |language=English|oclc=433091144 }}
56. ^{{cite book |last1=Chee-Beng |first1=Tan |title=Chinese Food and Foodways in Southeast Asia and Beyond |date=2012 |publisher=NUS Press |isbn=9789971695484 |page=129 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=S4XGBgAAQBAJ |language=en}}
57. ^{{cite book |last1=Chan-Yap |first1=Gloria |title=Hokkien Chinese borrowings in Tagalog |date=1980 |publisher=Dept. of Linguistics, School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=9780858832251 |page=136 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lU4HAQAAIAAJ |language=en}}
58. ^{{cite web |title=ACD - Austronesian Comparative Dictionary - Loans - a |url=http://www.trussel2.com/acd/acd-lo_A.htm?zoom_highlight=puthaw |website=www.trussel2.com |quote=Borrowing of Hokkien pú-thâu ‘axe’. This comparison was pointed out by Daniel Kaufman.}}
59. ^{{cite book |last=Potet |first=Jean-Paul G. |date=2016 |title=Tagalog Borrowings and Cognates |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jvOjDAAAQBAJ |location=Raleigh, NC |publisher=Lulu Press, Inc. |page=343 |isbn=9781326615796 }}
60. ^{{cite web |url=http://opinion.inquirer.net/58441/making-useless-information-useful|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119193326/https://opinion.inquirer.net/58441/making-useless-information-useful|archive-date=19 November 2018|title=Making useless information useful |last=Ocampo |first=Ambeth R. |author-link=Ambeth Ocampo |date=August 9, 2013 |publisher=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date= |quote=The trade and cultural exchange between the Philippines and Japan runs deep. In prewar Manila, Tansan was a popular brand of fizzy water (“tansan” in Japanese refers to carbonated mineral water). It was sold with the distinct metal bottle caps that have since been called tansan by Filipinos.}}
61. ^{{cite book |last1=Potet |first1=Jean-Paul |title=Tagalog borrowings and cognates |date=2016 |publisher=Jean-Paul G. Potet |isbn=9781326615796 |page=346 |language=English|oclc=962269309 }}
62. ^{{cite web |title=TRANSLATIONS {{!}} Tagalog Interpreter and Translator - Caroline Carrera |url=http://www.tagaloginterpreter.com/slangs2.html |website=www.tagaloginterpreter.com |quote=Bonsay, weng-weng – Bansot, pandak}}
63. ^{{cite news |last1=Cordero-Fernando |first1=Gilda |title=Our native ‘slanguage’ |url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/61487/our-native-slanguage/ |language=en |quote=“bonsai” means “dwarfed” or “short”}}
64. ^{{cite web |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/75991/japan-under-our-skin |title=Japan under our skin |last=Ocampo |first=Ambeth R. |author-link=Ambeth Ocampo |date=June 27, 2014 |publisher=Philippine Daily Inquirer |access-date= |quote=The childhood game “jak en poy,” with a nonsense rhyme in Filipino that accompanies the hand gestures of rock, scissors, and paper, traces its origin to the Japanese “janken pon.”}}
65. ^¹{{Cite journal |last=Albalá |first=Paloma |date=2003 |title=Hispanic Words of Indoamerican Origin in the Philippines |journal=Philippine Studies |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=125–146 |jstor=42633639}}
66. ^{{cite journal |last1=Panganiban |first1=José Villa |title=Influencia hispanomexicana en el idioma tagalo |journal=Historia Mexicana |date=1964 |volume=14 |issue=2 |page=264 |quote=ATOLE (MLP), en México, bebida preparada con sustancias harinosas y no-alcohólica. En Filipinas atole significa actualmente una pasta de harina, empleada como adhesivo, no comestible.|jstor=25135261 }}
67. ^¹{{Cite journal |last=León-Portilla |first=Miguel |date=1960 |title=Algunos nahuatlismos en el castellano de Filipinas |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3711930 |journal=Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl |language=es |issue=2 |pages=135–138 |issn=0071-1675}}
68. ^{{cite book |last1=Casado-Fresnillo |first1=Antonio Quilis, Celia |last2=Casado Fresnillo |first2=Celia |title=La lengua española en Filipinas : historia, situación actual, el chabacano, antología de textos |date=2008 |publisher=Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas |location=Madrid |isbn=978-8400086350 |page=410 |edition= 1st}}
69. ^{{cite journal |last1=Albalá |first1=Paloma |title=Hispanic Words of Indoamerican Origin in the Philippines |journal=Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints |date=1 March 2003 |volume=51 |issue=1 |page=133 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/257 |language=en |issn=2244-1638 |quote=petate "woven palm-matting" > Ceb. petate, Tag. petate;}}
70. ^{{cite journal |last1=Albalá |first1=Paloma |title=Hispanic Words of Indoamerican Origin in the Philippines |journal=Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints |date=1 March 2003 |volume=51 |issue=1 |page=133 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/257 |issn=2244-1638 |quote=tapanco "raised platform for storing lumber" > Kap. tapanko, Tag. tapangko;}}