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词条 North Atlantic Igneous Province
释义

  1. Formation

  2. Igneous landforms

     Within Britain 

  3. History of geological studies

  4. See also

  5. References

  6. External links

The North Atlantic Igneous Province (NAIP) is a large igneous province in the North Atlantic, centered on Iceland. In the Paleogene, the province formed the Thulean Plateau, a large basaltic lava plain,[1] which extended over at least 1.3{{e|6}} km2 in area and 6.6{{e|6}} km3 in volume.[2] The plateau was broken up during the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean leaving remnants existing in Northern Ireland, bits of northwestern Scotland, the Faroe Islands, bits of northwestern Iceland, eastern Greenland and western Norway and many of the islands located in the north eastern portion of the North Atlantic Ocean.[3][4] The igneous province is the origin of the Giant's Causeway and Fingal's Cave. The province is also known as Brito-Arctic province (also known as the North Atlantic Tertiary Volcanic Province) and the portions of the province in the British Isles is also called the British Tertiary Volcanic Province or British Tertiary Igneous Province.

Formation

Isotopic dating indicates the most active magmatic phase of the NAIP was between ca. 60.5 and ca. 54.5 Ma (million years ago)[7] (mid-Paleocene to early Eocene) - further divided into Phase 1 (pre-break-up phase) dated to ca. 62-58 Ma and Phase 2 (syn-break-up phase) dated to ca. 56-54 Ma.[8]

Continuing research also indicates that continental plate movement (Eurasian, Greenland, and North American), that regional rifting events, and that seafloor spreading between Labrador and Greenland may have begun as early as ca. 95-80 Ma,[9] ca. 81 Ma,[10] and ca. 63-61 Ma[11][12] respectively (late Cretaceous to early Paleocene).

Studies have suggested that the modern day Iceland hotspot corresponds to the earlier 'North Atlantic mantle plume' that would have created the NAIP.[13] Through both geochemical observations and reconstructions of paleogeography, it is speculated that the present day Iceland hotspot originated as a mantle plume on the Alpha Ridge (Arctic Ocean) ca. 130-120 Ma,[14] migrated down Ellesmere Island, through Baffin Island, onto the west coast of Greenland, and finally arrived on the east coast of Greenland by ca. 60 Ma.[15]

Extensive outpourings of lava occurred, particularly in East Greenland,[16] which during the Paleogene was then adjacent to Britain. Little is known of the geodynamics of the opening of the North Atlantic between Greenland and Europe.[17]

As the earth's crust was stretched above the mantle hotspot under stress from plate rifting,[18] fissures opened up along a line from Ireland to the Hebrides and plutonic complexes were formed.[19] Hot magma over 1000 °C surfaced as multiple, successive and extensive lava flows covered over the original landscape, burning forests, filling river valleys, burying hills, to eventually form the Thulean Plateau, which contained various volcanic landforms such as lava fields and volcanoes.[5] There was more than one period of volcanic activity during the NAIP, in between which sea levels rose and fell and erosion took place.[20]

Volcanic activity would have started with volcaniclastic accumulations, like volcanic ash, quickly followed by vast outpourings of highly fluid basaltic lava during successive eruptions through multiple volcanic vents or in linear fissures. As mafic low viscosity lava reached the surface it rapidly cooled and solidified, successive flows built up layer upon layer, each time filling and covering existing landscapes. Hyaloclastites and pillow lavas were formed when the lava flowed into lakes, rivers and seas. Magma that did not make it to the surface as flows froze in conduits as dikes and volcanic plugs and large amounts spread laterally to form sills. Dike swarms extended across the British Isles throughout the Cenozoic. Individual central complexes developed with arcuate intrusions (cone sheets, ring dikes and stocks), the intrusions of one centre cut through earlier centres recording magmatic activity with time. During intermittent periods of erosion and change in sea levels, heated waters circulated through the flows altering the basalts and deposited distinctive suites of zeolite minerals.[6]

Activity of the NAIP 55 million years ago may have caused the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, where a large amount of carbon was released into the atmosphere and the Earth substantially warmed. One hypothesis is that the uplift caused by the NAIP hotspot caused methane clathrates to dissociate and dump 2000 gigatons of carbon into the atmosphere.[21]

Igneous landforms

The NAIP is made up of both onshore and offshore basalt floods, sills, dykes, and plateaus. Dependent upon various regional locations, the NAIP is made up of MORB (Mid Ocean Ridge Basalt), alkali basalt,[22][23] tholeiitic basalt, and picrite basalt.[24]

Basaltic volcanic rocks up to {{convert|2.5|km|mi}} thick cover {{convert|65,000|km2|mi2}} in east Greenland. Numerous intrusions related to hot-spot magmatism are exposed in the coastal region of east Greenland. The intrusions show a wide range of compositions. The Skaergaard intrusion (Early Cenozoic or about 55 million year age) is a layered gabbro (mafic) intrusion that has mineralized rock units enriched in palladium and gold. In contrast, the Werner Bjerge complex is made up of potassium- and sodium-rich (alkaline) granitic rock, containing molybdenum.[25]

Locations of submarine central complexes within the NAIP include[19]

  • Anton Dohrn Seamount
  • Rosemary Bank
  • Blackstones Bank
  • Brendan
  • Erlend

Within Britain

The British portion of the NAIP, particularly West Scotland, provides relatively easy access, compared to the largely inaccessible basalt fields of West Greenland, to deeply eroded relics of the central volcanic complexes.

Locations of major intrusion complexes within the British part of the NAIP include:

{{div col}}
  • Lundy Island[26][27]
  • Carlingford, County Louth[28][29]
  • Mourne Mountains[30][31]
  • Slieve Gullion -Ring of Gullion AONB[32][33]
  • Arran[34][35]
  • Mull[36][37]
  • Ardnamurchan[38][39]
  • Rùm[40]
  • Eigg[41]
  • Skye[42][43]
  • St Kilda[44]
  • Rockall[45]
{{div col end}}

Other notable locations with NAIP landforms within Britain:

  • Giant's Causeway – Polygonal basalt columns, which seen from above are large hexagonal pavements[46]
  • Canna and Sanday – Basalt lava field with great thicknesses of boulder conglomerate, examples of periods of erosion by fast flowing rivers in between the lava flows.[47]
  • Rathlin Island[48] – Paleogene and Neogene lava flows
  • Fingal's Cave on the Isle of Staffa – Polygonal basalt columns eroded to form a cave[49]
  • Ailsa Craig[44] – Volcanic plug
  • Cleveland Dyke, North Yorkshire – Dyke swarm related to the Mull intrusive complex[50]
  • The dike complexes of the NAIP contain many examples of dolerite dike swarms found throughout the British Isles.

History of geological studies

The intensity of scientific investigation within the NAIP has made it one of the most historically important and deeply studied igneous provinces in the world. Basalt petrology was born in the Scottish Hebrides in 1903 led by the eminent British Geologist Sir Archibald Geikie. From the outset Geikie studied the geology of Skye and other Western Isles taking a keen interest in volcanic geology and in 1871 he presented the Geological Society of London with an outline of the 'Tertiary Volcanic History of Britain'.[51] Following Geikie many have tried, and continue to study and understand the NAIP, and in doing so have advanced knowledge in geology, mineralogy and in more recent decades geochemistry and geophysics.[5]

See also

  • Igneous rock
  • Geologic province
  • Mantle plume
  • Hotspot
  • Oceanic plateau
  • Continental flood basalt
  • Large igneous province
  • Dike swarm

References

1. ^[https://archive.today/20110813062050/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/61005289/ABSTRACT Brittle tectonism in relation to the Palaeogene evolution of the Thulean/NE Atlantic domain: a study in Ulster] Retrieved on 2007-11-10
2. ^{{cite journal|last=Eldholm|first=Olav|author2=Kjersti Grue |title=North Atlantic volcanic margins: Dimensions and production rates|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth|date=10 February 1994|volume=99|issue=B2|pages=2955–2968|doi=10.1029/93JB02879|quote=Quantitative calculations of NAVP dimensions, considered minimum estimates, reveal an areal extent of 1.3{{e{{!}}6}} km2 and a volume of flood basalts of 1.8{{e|6}} km3, yielding a mean eruption rate of 0.6 km3/yr or 2.4 km3/yr if two-thirds of the basalts were emplaced within 0.5 m.y. The total crustal volume is 6.6{{e|6}} km3, resulting in a mean crustal accretion rate of 2.2 km3/yr. Thus NAVP ranks among the world's larger igneous provinces if the volcanic margins are considered.|bibcode=1994JGR....99.2955E}}
3. ^{{cite book|title=The North Atlantic igneous province stratigraphy, tectonic, volcanic, and magmatic processes|year=2002|publisher=Geological Society|location=London|isbn=978-1-86239-108-6|editor1=D.W. Jolley |editor2=B.R. Bell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUAO-K19ItMC}}
4. ^{{cite journal|last=Courtillot|first=Vincent E|author2=Renne, Paul R |title=On the ages of flood basalt events|journal=Comptes Rendus Geoscience|date=January 2003|volume=335|issue=1|pages=113–140|doi=10.1016/S1631-0713(03)00006-3|url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/CourtRenne2003.pdf|quote=From file page 7 onward: Brito-Arctic Province section (section also discusses age, pulses of activity, and volume)|bibcode=2003CRGeo.335..113C|citeseerx=10.1.1.461.3338}}
5. ^1 2 {{cite book|last=Emeleus|first=C.H.|title=British Tertiary Volcanic Province|year=1992|author2=Gyopari, M.C.|publisher=Chapman & Hall on behalf of Joint Nature Conservation Committee|series=Geological Conservation Review|location=London}}
6. ^1 {{cite journal|last=Mussett|first=A. E.|author2=Dagley, P. |author3=Skelhorn, R. R. |title=Time and duration of activity in the British Tertiary Igneous Province|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|date=1 January 1988|volume=39|issue=1|pages=337–348|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.1988.039.01.29|bibcode = 1988GSLSP..39..337M }}
7. ^{{cite journal|last=Jolley|first=D. W.|author2=Bell, B. R. |title=The evolution of the North Atlantic Igneous Province and the opening of the NE Atlantic rift|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|date=1 January 2002|volume=197|issue=1|pages=1–13|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2002.197.01.01|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/197/1/1.short|quote=40Ar/39Ar and Pb-U isotopic age data show that the main period of continental flood basalt volcanism in the NAIP extended from ~60.5 Ma through to ~54.5 Ma.|bibcode=2002GSLSP.197....1J}}
8. ^{{cite journal|last=Rousse|first=S. |author2=M. Ganerød |author3=M.A. Smethurst |author4=T.H. Torsvik |author5=T. Prestvik|title=The British Tertiary Volcanics: Origin, History and New Paleogeographic Constraints for the North Atlantic|journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts|year=2007|volume=9|url=http://meetings.copernicus.org/www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU2007/09087/EGU2007-J-09087.pdf|quote=The NAIP formed during two major magmatic phases: a pre-break-up phase (62-58 Ma) and a syn-break-up phase (56-54 Ma) contemporaneous with the onset of North Atlantic sea floor spreading.}}
9. ^{{cite journal|last=Torsvik|first=T.H.|author2=B. Steinberger |author3=C. Gaina |title=North Atlantic Plate Motions and Plumes|journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts|year=2007|volume=9|url=http://meetings.copernicus.org/www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU2007/03964/EGU2007-J-03964.pdf|quote=Fixed hotspot frames show uniform NE movement of the coupled North American, Greenland, and Eurasian plates from ~95 to 80 Ma.}}
10. ^{{cite journal|last=Faleide|first=Jan Inge|last2=Tsikalas|first2=F.|last3=Breivik|first3=A. J.|last4=Mjelde|first4=R.|last5=Ritzmann|first5=O.|last6=Engen|first6=O.|last7=Wilson|first7=J.|last8=Eldholm|first8=O.|display-authors=4|title=Structure and evolution of the continental margin off Norway and the Barents Sea|journal=Episodes|year=2008|volume=31|issue=1|page=82|url=http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/33igc/13r.pdf|quote=Breakup in the NE Atlantic was preceded by prominent Late Cretaceous-Paleocene rifting. At the onset of this rifting, the area between NW Europe and Greenland was an epicontinental sea covering a region in which the crust had been extensively weakened by previous rift episodes. Ren et al. (2003) suggested onset of rifting at about 81 Ma}}{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
11. ^{{cite journal|last=Larsen|first=Lotte Melchior|author2=Rex, D. C. |author3=Watt, W. S. |author4=Guise, P. G. |title=40Ar/39Ar Dating of Alkali Basaltic Dykes along the Southwest Coast of Greenland: Cretaceous and Tertiary Igneous Activity along the Eastern Margin of the Labrador Sea|journal=Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin|year=1999|issue=184|pages=19–29|url=http://www.geus.dk/publications/bull-gl/nr184/nr184_p01-62.pdf#page=19|quote=The start of normal velocity ocean floor spreading in the Labrador Sea took place in the Paleocene, around geomagnetic chrons C27-C28 (61-63 Ma) and was accompanied by a burst in volcanic activity, where large amounts of tholeiitic picrites and basalts were erupted onto the continental margins of West Greenland and Labrador}}
12. ^{{cite journal|last=Chalmers|first=J. A.|author2=Pulvertaft, T.C.R. |title=Development of the continental margins of the Labrador Sea: a review|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|date=1 January 2001|volume=187|issue=1|pages=77–105|doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.187.01.05|quote=The Labrador Sea is a small oceanic basin that developed when the North American and Greenland plates separated. An initial period of stretching in Early Cretaceous time formed sedimentary basins now preserved under the continental shelves and around the margins of the oceanic crust. The basins subsided thermally during Late Cretaceous time and a second episode of tectonism took place during latest Cretaceous and early Paleocene time, before the onset of sea-floor spreading in mid-Paleocene time.|bibcode=2001GSLSP.187...77C}}
13. ^{{cite book|last=Lundin|first=Erik R.|author2=Anthony G. Doré|title=Fixity of the Iceland "hotspot" on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Observational evidence, mechanisms, and implications for Atlantic volcanic margins|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers|year=2005|volume=388|pages=627–651|doi=10.1130/0-8137-2388-4.627|isbn=978-0-8137-2388-4}}
14. ^{{cite journal|last=Saunders|first=A.D. |author2=S. Drachev |author3=M.K. Reichow|title=Tracking the Iceland Plume across the Arctic Ocean|journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts|year=2005|volume=7|url=http://meetings.copernicus.org/www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU05/09286/EGU05-J-09286.pdf|quote=It is widely assumed that Iceland sits above a mantle plume or hotspot. Plate reconstructions place the plume beneath what is now northeastern Canada at about 80 Ma. This correlates with an episode of basaltic volcanism in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, dated at around 90 Ma. The aseismic Alpha Ridge is bathymetrically linked to northern Ellesmere Island, and extends northwards beneath the Arctic Ocean.}}
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16. ^{{cite journal|last=Riisager|first=Janna|author2=Riisager, Peter |author3=Pedersen, Asger Ken |title=Paleomagnetism of large igneous provinces: case-study from West Greenland, North Atlantic igneous province|journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters|date=September 2003|volume=214|issue=3–4|pages=409–425|doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00367-4|bibcode=2003E&PSL.214..409R}}
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19. ^1 {{cite journal|last=Hitchen|first=K.|author2=Ritchie, J. D.|title=New K–Ar ages, and a provisional chronology, for the offshore part of the British Tertiary Igneous Province|journal=Scottish Journal of Geology|date=1 May 1993|volume=29|issue=1|pages=73–85|doi=10.1144/sjg29010073}}
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External links

  • Map of NAIP - from {{cite journal|last=Kent|first=R. W.|author2=J. Godfrey Fitton |title=Mantle Sources and Melting Dynamics in the British Palaeogene Igneous Province|journal=Journal of Petrology|date=1 July 2000|volume=41|issue=7|pages=1023–1040|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1023|url=http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org/content/41/7/1023.full|bibcode=2000JPet...41.1023K}}
  • Paleogeographic Map of NAIP - from {{cite journal|last=Ellam|first=R. M.|author2=F. M. Stuart |title=The Sub-lithospheric Source of North Atlantic Basalts: Evidence for, and Significance of, a Common End-member|journal=Journal of Petrology|date=1 July 2000|volume=41|issue=7|pages=919–932|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.919|url=http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org/content/41/7/919.full|bibcode=2000JPet...41..919E}}
  • Mantle Plumes - Iceland Hotspot page
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511073505/http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org/index.html Large Igneous Province Commission - home page]
{{Large igneous provinces}}{{coord missing|Atlantic Ocean}}

12 : Large igneous provinces|Paleocene volcanism|Eocene volcanism|Volcanism of the Atlantic Ocean|Flood basalts|Plateaus of the Atlantic Ocean|Geology of Greenland|Geology of Iceland|Volcanism of the United Kingdom|Volcanism of Northern Ireland|Volcanism of Scotland|Dike swarms
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