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词条 Penis
释义

  1. Vertebrates

      Birds    Mammals   Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)  Deer  Cetaceans  Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)  Carnivorans  Bats  Rodents  Primates  Humans  Marsupials   Monotremes   Other mammals  Other vertebrates 

  2. Invertebrates

      Arthropods    Insects    Mollusks  

  3. Etymology

  4. Human use of animal penises

  5. See also

  6. References

     Bibliography  Horses  Marsupials  Other animals 

  7. External links

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A penis (plural penises or penes {{IPAc-en|-|n|iː|z}}) is the primary sexual organ that male animals use to inseminate sexually receptive mates (usually females and hermaphrodites) during copulation.[1] Such organs occur in many animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate, but males do not bear a penis in every animal species, and in those species in which the male does bear a so-called penis, the penes in the various species are not necessarily homologous. For example, the penis of a mammal is at most analogous to the penis of a male insect or barnacle.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}}

The term penis applies to many intromittent organs, but not to all; for example the intromittent organ of most cephalopoda is the hectocotylus, a specialised arm, and male spiders use their pedipalps. Even within the Vertebrata there are morphological variants with specific terminology, such as hemipenes.

In most species of animals in which there is an organ that might reasonably be described as a penis, it has no major function other than intromission, or at least conveying the sperm to the female, but in the placental mammals the penis bears the distal part of the urethra, which discharges both urine during urination and semen during copulation.[2]

{{TOC limit|4}}{{Category see also|Animal penises}}

Vertebrates

Birds

{{see also|Intromittent organ#Birds|Bird anatomy#Urogenital and Endocrine systems}}{{anchor|Birds}}

Most male birds (e.g., roosters and turkeys) have a cloaca (also present on the female), but not a penis. Among bird species with a penis are paleognathes (tinamous and ratites)[3] and Anatidae (ducks, geese and swans).[4] A bird penis is different in structure from mammal penises, being an erectile expansion of the cloacal wall and being erected by lymph, not blood.[5] It is usually partially feathered and in some species features spines and brush-like filaments, and in flaccid state curls up inside the cloaca. The lake duck (also called Argentine blue-bill) has the largest penis in relation to body size of all vertebrates; while usually about half the body size (20 cm), a specimen with a penis 42.5 cm long is documented.

While most male birds have no external genitalia, male waterfowl (Anatidae) have a phallus. Most birds mate with the males balancing on top of the females and touching cloacas in a "cloacal kiss"; this makes forceful insemination very difficult. The phallus that male waterfowl have evolved everts out of their bodies (in a clockwise coil) and aids in inseminating females without their cooperation.[6] The male waterfowl evolution of a phallus to forcefully copulate with females has led to counteradaptations in females in the form of vaginal structures called dead end sacs and clockwise coils. These structures make it harder for males to achieve intromission. The clockwise coils are significant because the male phallus everts out of their body in a counter-clockwise spiral; therefore, a clockwise vaginal structure would impede forceful copulation. Studies have shown that the longer a male's phallus is, the more elaborate the vaginal structures were.[6]

The lake duck is notable for possessing, in relation to body length, the longest penis of all vertebrates; the penis, which is typically coiled up in flaccid state, can reach about the same length as the animal himself when fully erect, but is more commonly about half the bird's length.[7][8] It is theorized that the remarkable size of their spiny penises with bristled tips may have evolved in response to competitive pressure in these highly promiscuous birds, removing sperm from previous matings in the manner of a bottle brush.

Male and female emus are similar in appearance,[9] although the male's penis can become visible when it defecates.[10]

The male tinamou has a corkscrew shaped penis, similar to those of the ratites and to the hemipenis of some reptiles. Females have a small phallic organ in the cloaca which becomes larger during the breeding season.[11]

Mammals

{{commons category|Mammal penis}}

As with any other bodily attribute, the length and girth of the penis can be highly variable between mammals of different species.[12][13] In many mammals, the size of a flaccid penis is smaller than its erect size. In the realm of absolute size, the smallest vertebrate penis belongs to the common shrew (5 mm or 0.2 inches).{{citation needed|date = March 2013}}

A bone called the baculum or os penis is present in most mammals but absent in humans, cattle and horses.

In mammals the penis is divided into three parts:[15]

  • Roots (crura): these begin at the caudal border of the pelvic ischial arch.
  • Body: the part of the penis extending from the roots.
  • Glans: the free end of the penis.

The internal structures of the penis consist mainly of cavernous, erectile tissue, which is a collection of blood sinusoids separated by sheets of connective tissue (trabeculae). Some mammals have a lot of erectile tissue relative to connective tissue, for example horses. Because of this a horse's penis can enlarge more than a bull's penis. The urethra is on the ventral side of the body of the penis. As a general rule, a mammal's penis is proportional to its body size, but this varies greatly between species{{spaced ndash}}even between closely related ones. For example, an adult gorilla's erect penis is about {{convert|4|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=on}} in length; an adult chimpanzee, significantly smaller (in body size) than a gorilla, has a penis size about double that of the gorilla. In comparison, the human penis is larger than that of any other primate, both in proportion to body size and in absolute terms.[14]

Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)

The penises of even-toed ungulates are curved in an S-shape when not erect.[15] In bulls, rams and boars, the sigmoid flexure of the penis straightens out during erection.[16]

When mating, the tip of a male pronghorn's penis is often the first part to touch the female pronghorn.[17] The pronghorn's penis is about {{convert|5|in|cm}} long, and is shaped like an ice pick.[18] The front of a pronghorn's glans penis is relatively flat, while the back is relatively thick.[19] The male pronghorn usually ejaculates immediately after intromission.[20][21]

The penis of a dromedary camel is covered by a triangular penile sheath opening backwards,[22] and is about {{convert|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.[23][24] The camelmen often aid the male to enter his penis into the female's vulva, though the male is considered able to do it on his own. Copulation time ranges from 7 to 35 minutes, averaging 11–15 minutes.[25][26]

{{anchor|Bulls}}{{Commons category|Bull penis}}

Bulls have a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.[27][28][29]

The male genitalia of mouse deer are similar to those of pigs.[30] A boar's penis, which rotates rhythmically during copulation,[31] is about {{convert|18|in|cm}} long, and ejaculates about a pint of semen.[32] Wild boars have a roughly egg-sized sack near the opening of the penis, which collects urine and emits a sharp odour. The purpose of this is not fully understood.[33]

Deer
{{Main|Deer penis}}

A stag's penis forms an S-shaped curve when it is not erect, and is retracted into its sheath by the retractor penis muscle.[34] Some deer species spray urine on their bodies by urinating from an erect penis.[35] One type of scent-marking behavior in elk is known as "thrash-urination,[36][37] which typically involves palpitation of the erect penis.[37][38][39] A male elk's urethra points upward so that urine is sprayed almost at a right angle to the penis.[37] A sambar stag will mark himself by spraying urine directly in the face with a highly mobile penis, which is often erect during its rutting activities.[40] Red deer stags often have erect penises during combat.[41]

Cetaceans
{{anchor|Whales}}{{commons category|Cetacea penis}}{{See also|Dolphin#anatomy}}

Cetaceans' reproductive organs are located inside the body. Male cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) have two slits, the genital groove concealing the penis and one further behind for the anus.[42][43][44][45] Cetaceans have fibroelastic penises, similar to those of Artiodactyla.[46] The tapering tip of the cetacean penis is called the pars intrapraeputialis or terminal cone.[47] The blue whale has the largest penis of any organism on the planet, typically measuring {{convert|8|–|10|ft}}.[48] Accurate measurements are difficult to take because its erect length can only be observed during mating,[49] which occurs underwater. The penis on a right whale can be up to {{convert|2.7|m|ft|abbr=on}} – the testes, at up to {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} in length, {{convert|78|cm|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter, and weighing up to {{convert|525|lbs|kg|abbr=on}}, are also by far the largest of any animal on Earth.[50] {{anchor|Dolphins}}

On at least one occasion, a dolphin towed bathers through the water by hooking his erect penis around them.[51] Between male bottlenose dolphins, homosexual behaviour includes rubbing of genitals against each other, which sometimes leads to the males swimming belly to belly, inserting the penis in the other's genital slit and sometimes anus.[52]

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)

{{Anchor|Horses}}{{anchor|Stallion}} Stallions (male horses) have a vascular penis. When non-erect, it is quite flaccid and contained within the prepuce (foreskin, or sheath).{{anchor|Tapiridae}}Tapirs have exceptionally long penises relative to their body size.[53][54][55][56] The glans of the Malayan tapir resembles a mushroom, and is similar to the glans of the horse.[57] The penis of the Sumatran rhinoceros contains two lateral lobes and a structure called the processus glandis.[58]

Carnivorans

{{anchor|Carnivora}}{{see also|Carnivora#Reproductive system}}

All members of Carnivora (except hyenas) have a baculum.[59]{{anchor|Caniformia}}Canine penises have a structure at the base called the bulbus glandis.[60][65]

During copulation, the spotted hyena inserts his penis through the female's pseudo-penis instead of directly through the vagina, which is blocked by the false scrotum and testes. Once the female retracts her clitoris, the male enters the female by sliding beneath her, an operation facilitated by the penis's upward angle.[61][62] The pseudo-penis closely resembles the male hyena's penis, but can be distinguished from the male's genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans.[63] In male spotted hyenas, as well as females, the base of the glans is covered with penile spines.[64][65][66]

{{anchor|Felidae}}Domestic cats have barbed penises, with about 120–150 one millimeter long backwards-pointing spines.[67] Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which is a trigger for ovulation. Lions also have barbed penises.[68][69] Male felids urinate backwards by curving the tip of the glans penis backward.[70][71] When male cheetahs urine-mark their territories, they stand one meter away from a tree or rock surface with the tail raised, pointing the penis either horizontally backward or 60° upward.[72]{{anchor|Fossa}}The male fossa has an unusually long penis and baculum (penis bone), reaching to between his front legs when erect[73] withbackwards-pointing spines along most of its length.[74] The male fossa has scent glands near the penis, with the penile glands emitting a strong odor.{{r|1986Köhncke}}

The beech marten's penis is larger than the pine marten's, with the bacula of young beech martens often outsizing those of old pine martens.[75]

Raccoons have penis bones which bend at a 90 degree angle at the tip.[76] The extrusibility of a raccoon's penis can be used to distinguish mature males from immature males.[77][78]

Male walruses possess the largest penis bones of any land mammal, both in absolute size and relative to body size.[79][80]

The adult male American mink's penis is {{convert|5.6|cm|in|abbr=on|order=flip}} long, and is covered by a sheath. The baculum is well-developed, being triangular in cross section and curved at the tip.[81]

Bats

Males of Racey's pipistrelle bat have a long, straight penis with a notch between the shaft and the narrow, egg-shaped glans penis. Near the top, the penis is haired, but the base is almost naked. In the baculum (penis bone), the shaft is long and narrow and slightly curved.[82] The length of the penis and baculum distinguish P. raceyi from all comparably sized African and Malagasy vespertilionids.[83] In males, penis length is {{convert|9.6|to|11.8|mm|in|abbr=on}} and baculum length is {{convert|8.8|to|10.0|mm|in|abbr=on}}.[84]

Copulation by male greater short-nosed fruit bats is dorsoventral and the females lick the shaft or the base of the male's penis, but not the glans which has already penetrated the vagina. While the females do this, the penis is not withdrawn and research has shown a positive relationship between length of the time that the penis is licked and the duration of copulation. Post copulation genital grooming has also been observed.[85]

Rodents

The glans penis of the marsh rice rat is long and robust,[86] averaging {{convert|7.3|mm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|4.6|mm|in|abbr=on}} broad, and the baculum (penis bone) is {{convert|6.6|mm|in|abbr=on}} long.[87] As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae, the marsh rice rat has a complex penis, with the distal (far) end of the baculum ending in three digits.[88] The central digit is notably larger than those at the sides.[86] The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines, but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue. The papilla (nipple-like projection) on the dorsal (upper) side of the penis is covered with small spines, a character the marsh rice rat shares only with Oligoryzomys and Oryzomys couesi among oryzomyines examined.[89] On the urethral process, located in the crater at the end of the penis,[90] a fleshy process (the subapical lobule) is present; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except O. couesi and Holochilus brasiliensis.[91] The baculum is deeper than it is wide.[86]

In Transandinomys talamancae, the outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines, but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue.[92]

Some features of the accessory glands in the male genital region vary among oryzomyines. In Transandinomys talamancae,[93] a single pair of preputial glands is present at the penis. As is usual for sigmodontines, there are two pairs of ventral prostate glands and a single pair of anterior and dorsal prostate glands. Part of the end of the vesicular gland is irregularly folded, not smooth as in most oryzomyines.[94]

In Pseudorhyzomys, the baculum (penis bone) displays large protuberances at the sides. In the cartilaginous part of the baculum, the central digit is smaller than those at the sides.[95]

In Drymoreomys, there are three digits at the tip of the penis, of which the central one is the largest.{{Sfn|Percequillo|Weksler|Costa|2011|p=367}}

In Thomasomys ucucha the glans penis is rounded, short, and small and is superficially divided into left and right halves by a trough at the top and a ridge at the bottom.[96]

The glans penis of a male cape ground squirrel is large with a prominent baculum.[97]

Unlike other squirrel species, red squirrels have long, thin, and narrow penises, without a prominent baculum.[98][99]

Winkelmann's mouse can easily be distinguished from its close relatives by the shape of its penis, which has a partially corrugated glans.[100]

The foreskin of a capybara is attached to the anus in an unusual way, forming an anogenital invagination.[101]

Primates

{{multiple image
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External male genitalia of Papio hamadryas and Chlorocebus pygerythrus.


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It has been postulated that the shape of the human penis may have been selected by sperm competition. The shape could have favored displacement of seminal fluids implanted within the female reproductive tract by rival males: the thrusting action which occurs during sexual intercourse can mechanically remove seminal fluid out of the cervix area from a previous mating.[102]

The penile morphology of some types of strepsirrhine primates has provided information about their taxonomy.[103] Male galago species possess very distinctive penile morphology that can be used to classify species.[104][105][106]

The northern greater galago penis is on average {{convert|18|mm|abbr=on}} in length, with doubled headed or even tridentate spines pointing towards the body. They are less densely packed than in Otolemur crassicaudatus.[104][105][106] The penis of the ring-tailed lemur is nearly cylindrical in shape and is covered in small spines, as well as having two pairs of larger spines on both sides.[107]

The adult male of each vervet monkey species has a pale blue scrotum and a red penis,[108][109] and male proboscis monkeys have a red penis with a black scrotum.[110]

Male baboons and squirrel monkeys sometimes gesture with an erect penis as both a warning of impending danger and a threat to predators.[111][112] In male squirrel monkeys, this gesture is used for social communication.[123][113]

Humans

{{main|Human penis}}{{commons category|Human penis}}

The human penis is an external sex organ of male humans. It is a reproductive, intromittent organ that additionally serves as the urinal duct. The main parts are the root of the penis (radix): It is the attached part, consisting of the bulb of penis in the middle and the crus of penis, one on either side of the bulb; the body of the penis (corpus); and the epithelium of the penis consists of the shaft skin, the foreskin, and the preputial mucosa on the inside of the foreskin and covering the glans penis.

The human penis is made up of three columns of tissue: two corpora cavernosa lie next to each other on the dorsal side and one corpus spongiosum lies between them on the ventral side. The urethra, which is the last part of the urinary tract, traverses the corpus spongiosum, and its opening, known as the meatus {{IPAc-en|m|iː|ˈ|eɪ|t|ə|s}}, lies on the tip of the glans penis. It is a passage both for urine and for the ejaculation of semen.

In males, the expulsion of urine from the body is done through the penis. The urethra drains the bladder through the prostate gland where it is joined by the ejaculatory duct, and then onward to the penis.

An erection is the stiffening and rising of the penis, which occurs during sexual arousal, though it can also happen in non-sexual situations. Ejaculation is the ejecting of semen from the penis, and is usually accompanied by orgasm. A series of muscular contractions delivers semen, containing male gametes known as sperm cells or spermatozoa, from the penis.

The most common form of genital alteration is circumcision: removal of part or all of the foreskin for various cultural, religious, and more rarely medical reasons. There is controversy surrounding circumcision.

{{As of|2015}}, a systematic review of 15,521 men, and the best research to date on the topic, as the subjects were measured by health professionals, rather than self-measured, has concluded that the average length of an erect human penis is 13.12 cm (5.17 inches) long, while the average circumference of an erect human penis is 11.66 cm (4.59 inches).[114][115]

Marsupials

Most marsupials, except for the two largest species of kangaroos and marsupial moles[116] (assuming the latter are true marsupials), have a bifurcated penis, separated into two columns, so that the penis has two ends corresponding to the females' two vaginas.[117]

Monotremes

Monotremes and marsupial moles are the only mammals in which the penis is located inside the cloaca.[118][119]

Male echidnas have a four-headed penis.[120] During mating, the heads on one side "shut down" and do not grow in size; the other two are used to release semen into the female's two-branched reproductive tract. The heads used are swapped each time the mammal copulates.[121] When not in use, the penis is retracted inside a preputial sac in the cloaca. The male echidna's penis is {{convert|7|cm}} long when erect, and its shaft is covered with penile spines.[122] The penis is nearly a quarter of his body length when erect.[123] Each side of the bilaterally symmetrical, rosette-like, four-headed penis [similar to that of reptiles and {{convert|7|cm|in}} in length] is used alternately, with the other half being shut down between ejaculations.[124][125]

Other mammals

{{organize section|date=June 2013}}

The penis of the bush hyrax is complex and distinct from that of the other hyrax genera. It has a short, thin appendage within a cup-like glans penis and measures greater than {{convert|6|cm}} when erect. Additionally, it has been observed that the bush hyrax also has a greater distance between the anus and preputial opening in comparison to other hyraxes.[126]

{{Commons category|Elephant penis}}{{anchor|Elephants}}

An adult elephant has the largest penis of any land animal.[127] An elephant's penis can reach a length of {{convert|100|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} and a diameter of {{convert|16|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} at the base.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} It is S-shaped when fully erect and has a Y-shaped orifice.[128] During musth, a male elephant may urinate with his penis still in the sheath, which causes the urine to spray on the hind legs.[129][130] An elephant's penis is very mobile, being able to move independently of the male's pelvis,[131] and the penis curves forward and upward prior to mounting another elephant.[65]

In giant anteaters, the (retracted) penis and testes are located internally between the rectum and urinary bladder.[132]

When the male armadillo Chaetophractus villosus is sexually aroused, species determination is easier. Its penis can be as long as {{convert|35|mm|1}}, and usually remains completely withdrawn inside a skin receptacle.[133] Scientists conducting studies on the C. villosus penis muscles revealed this species' very long penis exhibits variability. During its waking hours, it remains hidden beneath a skin receptacle, until it becomes erect and it projects outside in a rostral direction.[134]

Other vertebrates

{{see also|Intromittent organ#Vertebrata}}

Male turtles and crocodiles have a penis, while male specimens of the reptile order Squamata have two paired organs called hemipenes. Tuataras must use their cloacae for reproduction.[135] Due to evolutionary convergence, turtle and mammal penises have a similar structure.[136]

In some fishes, the gonopodium, andropodium, and claspers are intromittent organs (to introduce sperm into the female) developed from modified fins.

Invertebrates

{{Further|Intromittent organ#Invertebrates}}

Arthropods

The record for the largest penis size to body size ratio is held by the barnacle. The barnacle's penis can grow to up to forty times its own body length. This enables them to reach the nearest female for fertilization.

A number of invertebrate species have independently evolved the mating technique of traumatic insemination where the penis penetrates the female's abdomen, thereby creating a womb into which it deposits sperm. This has been most fully studied in bed bugs.

Some millipedes have penises. In these species, the penis is simply one or two projections on underneath the third body segment that produce a spermatophore or sperm packet. The act of insemination however occurs through specialized legs called gonopods which collect the spermatophore and insert it into the female.

Insects

{{see also|Intromittent organ#Insects}}

In male insects, the structure analogous to a penis is known as aedeagus. The male copulatory organ of various lower invertebrate animals is often called the cirrus.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

The lesser water boatman's mating call, generated by rubbing the penis against the abdomen, is the loudest sound, relative to body size, in the animal kingdom.[137]

In 2010, entomologist Charles Linehard described Neotrogla, a new genus of barkflies. Species of this genus have sex-reversed genitalia. Females have penis-like organs called gynosomes that are inserted into vagina-like openings of males during mating.[138] In 2014, a detailed study of the insects reproductive habits led by Kazunori Yoshizawae confirmed that the organ functions similar to a penis – for example, it swells during sexual intercourse – and is used to extract sperm from the male.[139][140]

Mollusks

The penis in most male Coleoid cephalopods is a long and muscular end of the gonoduct used to transfer spermatophores to a modified arm called a hectocotylus. That, in turn, is used to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the penis is long and able to extend beyond the mantle cavity and transfers the spermatophores directly to the female. Deep water squid have the greatest known penis length relative to body size of all mobile animals, second in the entire animal kingdom only to certain sessile barnacles Penis elongation in Onykia ingens may result in a penis that is as long as the mantle, head and arms combined.[153][141] Giant squid of the genus Architeuthis are unusual in that they possess both a large penis and modified arm tips, although it is uncertain whether the latter are used for spermatophore transfer.[142]

Etymology

The word "penis" is taken from the Latin word for "tail." Some derive that from Indo-European *pesnis, and the Greek word πέος = "penis" from Indo-European *pesos. Prior to the adoption of the Latin word in English the penis was referred to as a "yard". The Oxford English Dictionary cites an example of the word yard used in this sense from 1379,[143] and notes that in his Physical Dictionary of 1684, Steven Blankaart defined the word penis as "the Yard, made up of two nervous Bodies, the Channel, Nut, Skin, and Fore-skin, etc."[144]

As with nearly any aspect of the body involved in sexual or excretory functions, the penis is the subject of many slang words and euphemisms for it, a particularly common and enduring one being "cock". See WikiSaurus:penis for a list of alternative words for penis.

The Latin word "phallus" (from Greek φαλλος) is sometimes used to describe the penis, although "phallus" originally was used to describe representations, pictorial or carved, of the penis.[145]

Pizzle, an archaic English word for penis, of Low German or Dutch origin, is now used to denote the penis of a non-human animal.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}

The adjectival form of the word penis is penile. This adjective is commonly used in describing various accessory structures of male copulatory organs found in many kinds of invertebrate animals.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}

Human use of animal penises

{{main|Pizzle}}

Pizzles are represented in heraldry, where the adjective pizzled (or vilené[146]) indicates that part of an animate charge's anatomy, especially if coloured differently.

See also

{{Commons category|Male genitalia in heraldry}}
  • Fascinus
  • Buried penis
  • Castration anxiety
  • Diphallia
  • Dildo
  • Erogenous zone
  • Koteka
  • Micropenis
  • Penis enlargement
  • Penis envy
  • Penis removal
  • Phallic architecture
  • Preputioplasty
  • Pubic hair
  • Stamen
  • Stunt cock
  • Testicle

References

1. ^{{cite book|author1=Janet Leonard|author2=Alex Cordoba-Aguilar R|title=The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgtXj5R6OfMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=20 July 2013|date=18 June 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-971703-3|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011093915/http://books.google.com/books?id=PgtXj5R6OfMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=11 October 2013|df=}}
2. ^{{cite book|author=Marvalee H. Wake|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKlWjdOkiMwC&pg=PA583#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|date=15 September 1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7|page=583|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231143932/http://books.google.com/books?id=VKlWjdOkiMwC&pg=PA583#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=31 December 2013|df=}}
3. ^{{cite book|author=Julian Lombardi|title=Comparative Vertebrate Reproduction|url=https://books.google.com/?id=cqQX9RMPAegC&q=penis|accessdate=5 December 2012|year=1998|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-7923-8336-9|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326171659/http://books.google.com/books?id=cqQX9RMPAegC&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
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5. ^{{cite book|author=Frank B. Gill|title=Ornithology|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zM0tG5ApO0UC&pg=PA414&q=penis|accessdate=5 December 2012|date=6 October 2006|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-7167-4983-7|pages=414–|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107223055/http://books.google.com/books?id=zM0tG5ApO0UC&pg=PA414&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=7 January 2014|df=}}
6. ^1 Brennan, P. L. R. et al. Coevolution of male and female genital morphology in waterfowl. PLoS ONE 2, e418 (2007).
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8. ^{{cite journal|last=McCracken|first=Kevin G.|first2=Robert E.|last2=Wilson|first3=Pamela J.|last3=McCracken|first4=Kevin P.|last4=Johnson|year=2001|title=Sexual selection: Are ducks impressed by drakes' display?|journal=Nature|volume=413|issue=6852|page=128|doi=10.1038/35093160|url=http://www.bio.miami.edu/mccracken/reprints/nature-413-128.pdf|pmid=11557968|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160123225012/http://www.bio.miami.edu/mccracken/reprints/nature-413-128.pdf|archivedate=2016-01-23|df=}}
9. ^Eastman, p. 23.
10. ^Coddington and Cockburn, p. 366.
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20. ^{{cite book|author=John A. Byers|title=American Pronghorn: Social Adaptations and the Ghosts of Predators Past|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H170TWNKyuYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=(ejaculate%7Cejaculates%7Cejaculation)&f=false|accessdate=15 July 2013|year=1997|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-08699-6|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101052335/http://books.google.com/books?id=H170TWNKyuYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=(ejaculate%7Cejaculates%7Cejaculation)&f=false|archivedate=1 January 2014|df=}}
21. ^{{cite book|author=John A. Byers|title=Built for Speed: A Year in the Life of Pronghorn|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0AEkQ0jY40C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=(ejaculate%7Cejaculates%7Cejaculation)&f=false|accessdate=15 July 2013|date=30 June 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02913-2|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101045402/http://books.google.com/books?id=R0AEkQ0jY40C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=(ejaculate%7Cejaculates%7Cejaculation)&f=false|archivedate=1 January 2014|df=}}
22. ^{{cite book|author=R. Yagil|title=The desert camel: comparative physiological adaptation|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Nq3wAAAAMAAJ&q=penis#search_anchor|accessdate=5 September 2013|year=1985|publisher=Karger|isbn=978-3-8055-4065-0|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101072733/http://books.google.com/books?ei=OcsoUrbcIaO4sQT76YH4Bg&id=Nq3wAAAAMAAJ&q=penis#search_anchor|archivedate=1 January 2014|df=}}
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28. ^1 {{cite book|title=Functional Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals|url=https://books.google.com/?id=naSWWxJLcd0C&q=penis%20OR%20glans|date=2009-03-04|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780813814513|author=William O. Reece|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320145847/https://books.google.com/books?id=naSWWxJLcd0C&q=penis%20OR%20glans&f=false|archivedate=2018-03-20|df=}}
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30. ^Vidyadaran, M. K., et al. "[https://academic.oup.com/jmammal/article-pdf/80/1/199/2511074/80-1-199.pdf Male genital organs and accessory glands of the lesser mouse deer, Tragulus javanicus]." Journal of mammalogy 80.1 (1999): 199-204.
31. ^{{cite book|author=William G. Eberhard|title=Female Control: Sexual Selection by Cryptic Female Choice|url=https://books.google.com/?id=A0kcDzAlYy4C&q=penis|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01084-7|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326175332/http://books.google.com/books?id=A0kcDzAlYy4C&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
32. ^{{cite book|author=Geoffrey Miller|title=The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature|url=https://books.google.com/?id=QG-8PbZb4csC&q=penis|accessdate=23 July 2013|date=21 December 2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-81374-9|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326181700/http://books.google.com/books?id=QG-8PbZb4csC&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
33. ^Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A.; Bannikov, A. G.; Hoffman, R. S. (1988) [https://archive.org/stream/mammalsofsovietu11988gept#page/18/mode/2up Mammals of the Soviet Union], Volume I, Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation, pp. 19-82
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37. ^1 2 {{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=7qogKGcOENAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=thrash%20urination&f=false | title = Current Therapy in Large Animal Theriogenology | isbn = 9781437713404 | author1 = Youngquist | first1 = Robert S | last2 = Threlfall | first2 = Walter R | date = 2006-11-23 | ref = harv | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130511035842/http://books.google.com/books?id=7qogKGcOENAC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=thrash%20urination&f=false | archivedate = 2013-05-11 | df = }}
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40. ^Deer of the world: their evolution, behaviour, and ecology. Valerius Geist. Stackpole Books. 1998. Pg. 73-77.
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55. ^{{cite book|author=Daniel W. Gade|title=Nature & Culture in the Andes|url=https://books.google.com/?id=G01-CzUS6WgC&pg=PA125&dq=tapir+penis#v=onepage&q=tapir%20penis&f=false|accessdate=4 March 2013|year=1999|publisher=Univ of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-16124-8|pages=125–|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528094026/http://books.google.com/books?id=G01-CzUS6WgC&pg=PA125&dq=tapir+penis&hl=en&sa=X&ei=rC80UY-IJ5Dp0QHHrIGwDg&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=tapir%20penis&f=false|archivedate=28 May 2013|df=}}
56. ^{{cite book|author=Jeffrey Quilter|title=Cobble Circles and Standing Stones: Archaeology at the Rivas Site, Costa Rica|url=https://books.google.com/?id=8Y3wB33zvRkC&pg=PA181&dq=tapir+penis#v=onepage&q=tapir%20penis&f=false|accessdate=4 March 2013|date=1 April 2004|publisher=University of Iowa Press|isbn=978-1-58729-484-6|pages=181–|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528100618/http://books.google.com/books?id=8Y3wB33zvRkC&pg=PA181&dq=tapir+penis&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eDA0UbzEE-iX0QHz_oG4CA&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=tapir%20penis&f=false|archivedate=28 May 2013|df=}}
57. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Lilia | first1 = K. | last2 = Rosnina | first2 = Y. | last3 = Abd Wahid | first3 = H. | last4 = Zahari | first4 = Z. Z. | last5 = Abraham | first5 = M. | title = Gross Anatomy and Ultrasonographic Images of the Reproductive System of the Malayan Tapir (Tapirus indicus) | doi = 10.1111/j.1439-0264.2010.01030.x | journal = Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia | volume = 39 | issue = 6 | pages = 569–575 | year = 2010 | pmid = | pmc = }}
58. ^Zainal Zahari, Z., et al. "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10805755_Gross_Anatomy_and_Ultrasonographic_Images_of_the_Reproductive_System_of_the_Sumatran_Rhinoceros_Dicerorhinus_sumatrensis Gross anatomy and ultrasonographic images of the reproductive system of the sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis).] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320145847/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10805755_Gross_Anatomy_and_Ultrasonographic_Images_of_the_Reproductive_System_of_the_Sumatran_Rhinoceros_Dicerorhinus_sumatrensis |date=2018-03-20 }}" Anatomia, histologia, embryologia 31.6 (2002): 350-354.
59. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229990265|title=Baculum length and copulatory behaviour in carnivores and pinnipeds (Grand Order Ferae)|publisher=|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603121320/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alan_Dixson/publication/229990265_Baculum_length_and_copulatory-behavior_in_carnivores_and_pinnipeds_(Grand_Order_Ferae)/links/5565173508ae94e957205686.pdf|archivedate=2016-06-03|df=}}
60. ^{{cite book|author=Susan Long|title=Veterinary Genetics and Reproductive Physiology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gre0VUZuhGYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=bulbus%20glandis&f=false|year=2006|publisher=Churchill Livingstone Elsevier|isbn=978-0-7506-8877-2|accessdate=2013-11-08|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326180538/http://books.google.com/books?id=Gre0VUZuhGYC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=bulbus%20glandis&f=false|archivedate=2014-03-26|df=}}
61. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Szykman | first1 = M. | last2 = Van Horn | first2 = R. C. | last3 = Engh | first3 = A.L. Boydston | last4 = Holekamp | first4 = K. E. | year = 2007 | title = Courtship and mating in free-living spotted hyenas | url = http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~bowles/Dominance/Papers/SzykmanetalHyenaMatingBehaviour2007.pdf | journal = Behaviour | volume = 144 | issue = 7| pages = 815–846 | doi = 10.1163/156853907781476418 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20121130193631/http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~bowles/Dominance/Papers/SzykmanetalHyenaMatingBehaviour2007.pdf | archivedate = 2012-11-30 | df = | citeseerx = 10.1.1.630.5755 }}
62. ^{{Harvnb|Estes|1998|p=293}}
63. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Glickman | first1 = SE | last2 = Cunha | first2 = GR | last3 = Drea | first3 = CM | last4 = Conley | first4 = AJ | last5 = Place | first5 = NJ | year = 2006 | title = Mammalian sexual differentiation: lessons from the spotted hyena | url = http://courses.washington.edu/pbio509/Glickman_etal.pdf | journal = Trends Endocrinol Metab | volume = 17 | issue = 9| pages = 349–356 | doi = 10.1016/j.tem.2006.09.005 | pmid = 17010637 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130222022824/http://courses.washington.edu/pbio509/Glickman_etal.pdf | archivedate = 2013-02-22 | df = }}
64. ^{{cite book|author=R. F. Ewer|title=The Carnivores|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IETMd3-lSlkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=9 January 2013|year=1973|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8493-3|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528110801/http://books.google.com/books?id=IETMd3-lSlkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=28 May 2013|df=}}
65. ^1 {{cite book|author=R. D. Estes|title=The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g977LsZHpcsC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-08085-0|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011083721/http://books.google.com/books?id=g977LsZHpcsC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=11 October 2013|df=}}
66. ^{{cite book|author=Catherine Blackledge|title=The Story of V: A Natural History of Female Sexuality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2d-11Y_u3cC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=2003|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3455-8|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011083623/http://books.google.com/books?id=f2d-11Y_u3cC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=11 October 2013|df=}}
67. ^{{Cite journal |last=Aronson |first=L. R. |last2=Cooper |first2=M. L. |title=Penile spines of the domestic cat: their endocrine-behavior relations |journal=Anat. Rec. |volume=157 |issue=1 |pages=71–8 |year=1967 |pmid=6030760 |doi=10.1002/ar.1091570111 |url=http://www.catcollection.org/files/PenileSpines.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620212227/http://www.catcollection.org/files/PenileSpines.pdf |archivedate=2017-06-20 |df= }}
68. ^{{cite book|title=Cats of Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBPpc7QjaVAC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=2005|publisher=Struik|isbn=978-1-77007-063-9|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182705/http://books.google.com/books?id=WBPpc7QjaVAC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
69. ^{{cite book|author=Philip Caputo|title=Ghosts of Tsavo: Stalking the Mystery Lions of East Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmFQjUz5bmUC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|date=1 June 2003|publisher=Adventure Press, National Geographic|isbn=978-0-7922-4100-3|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326175500/http://books.google.com/books?id=FmFQjUz5bmUC&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
70. ^1 {{cite book|author=R. F. Ewer|title=The Carnivores|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IETMd3-lSlkC&pg=PA116#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=1998|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8493-3|page=116|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326181627/http://books.google.com/books?id=IETMd3-lSlkC&pg=PA116#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
71. ^{{cite book|author=Reena Mathur|title=Animal Behaviour 3/e|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKXOCgoI6D8C&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=2009|publisher=Rastogi Publications|isbn=978-81-7133-747-7|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326180352/http://books.google.com/books?id=QKXOCgoI6D8C&q=penis#v=snippet&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
72. ^{{cite book|author=T. M. Caro|title=Cheetahs of the Serengeti Plains: Group Living in an Asocial Species|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hcZCubO01bEC&pg=PA203&q=penis|accessdate=23 July 2013|date=15 August 1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-09433-5|page=203|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182439/http://books.google.com/books?id=hcZCubO01bEC&pg=PA203&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
73. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Köhncke | first1 = M. | last2 = Leonhardt | first2 = K. | title = Cryptoprocta ferox | journal = Mammalian Species | issue = 254 | pages = 1–5 | year = 1986 | url = http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-254-01-0001.pdf | accessdate = 19 May 2010 | doi = 10.2307/3503919 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100621003457/http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-254-01-0001.pdf | archivedate = 21 June 2010 | df = | jstor = 3503919 }}
74. ^{{cite book | editor1-last = Macdonald | editor1-first = D.W. | editor1-link = David W. Macdonald | title = The Princeton Encyclopedia of Mammals | year = 2009 | publisher = Princeton University Press | isbn = 978-0-691-14069-8 | ref = harv}}
75. ^{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=881}}
76. ^{{cite book|author=Leon Fradley Whitney|title=The Raccoon|url=https://books.google.com/?id=axtBAAAAYAAJ&dq=raccoon+penis&q=penis#search_anchor|accessdate=24 July 2013|year=1952|publisher=Practical Science Publishing Company|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326181315/http://books.google.com/books?ei=SqLwUc6KAcHhygHKjYCwDQ&id=axtBAAAAYAAJ&dq=raccoon+penis&q=penis#search_anchor|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
77. ^{{cite book|author=Samuel I. Zeveloff|title=Raccoons: A Natural History|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vnhVibvnzvIC&pg=PA5&dq=raccoon+penis#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=25 July 2013|year=2002|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-0964-1|pages=5–|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326174609/http://books.google.com/books?id=vnhVibvnzvIC&pg=PA5&dq=raccoon+penis&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CKLwUaDdIKnwyQHorYHgCQ&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
78. ^{{cite book|author=Julie Feinstein|title=Field Guide to Urban Wildlife|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jUUKN77Ko_0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=22 July 2013|date=January 2011|publisher=Stackpole Books|isbn=978-0-8117-0585-1|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182553/http://books.google.com/books?id=jUUKN77Ko_0C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
79. ^{{cite journal|author = Fay, F.H.|year = 1985|url = http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/default.html|title = Odobenus rosmarus|journal = Mammalian Species|volume = 238|pages = 1–7|doi = 10.2307/3503810|issue = 238|jstor = 3503810|deadurl = no|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130915093329/http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/default.html|archivedate = 2013-09-15|df = }}
80. ^{{cite book|author1= Born, E. W. |author2=Gjertz, I. |author3=Reeves, R. R.|year = 1995|title = Population assessment of Atlantic Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus L.)|publisher = Meddelelser. Norsk Polarinstitut|location = Oslo, Norway|page = 100}}
81. ^{{Harvnb|Feldhamer|Thompson|Chapman|2003|pp=663–664}}
82. ^Bates et al., 2006, p. 304
83. ^Bates et al., 2006, pp. 306–307
84. ^Bates et al., 2006, table 1
85. ^{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007595|last=Tan|first=Min|author2=Gareth Jones|author3=Guangjian Zhu|author4=Jianping Ye|author5=Tiyu Hong|author6=Shanyi Zhou|author7=Shuyi Zhang|author8=Libiao Zhang|date=October 28, 2009|title=Fellatio by Fruit Bats Prolongs Copulation Time|pages=e7595|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=4|issue=10|pmid=19862320|pmc=2762080|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.7595T|editor1-last=Hosken|editor1-first=David|df=}}
86. ^1 2 Hooper and Musser, 1964, p. 13
87. ^Hooper and Musser, 1964, table 1
88. ^Weksler, 2006, pp. 55–56
89. ^Hooper and Musser, 1964, p. 13; Weksler, 2006, p. 57
90. ^Hooper and Musser, 1964, p. 7
91. ^Weksler, 2006, p. 57
92. ^Weksler, 2006, pp. 56–57
93. ^Described by Voss and Linzey (1981). Noted in Weksler, 2006, p. 58, footnote 10
94. ^Weksler, 2006, pp. 57–58; Voss and Linzey, 1981, p. 13
95. ^Weksler, 2006, pp. 55–56
96. ^Voss, 2003, p. 11
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101. ^{{cite book|author1=José Roberto Moreira|author2=Katia Maria P.M.B. Ferraz|author3=Emilio A. Herrera|title=Capybara: Biology, Use and Conservation of an Exceptional Neotropical Species|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eiPJQ0gmVrkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|accessdate=25 July 2013|date=15 August 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4614-4000-0|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326175202/http://books.google.com/books?id=eiPJQ0gmVrkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
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109. ^{{cite book|author=Peter Apps|title=Wild Ways: Field Guide to the Behaviour of Southern African Mammals|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CqygqDOkAj0C&q=penis|accessdate=23 July 2013|year=2000|publisher=Struik|isbn=978-1-86872-443-7|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326181402/http://books.google.com/books?id=CqygqDOkAj0C&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
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114. ^https://www.realclearscience.com/journal_club/2015/03/03/is_your_penis_normal_theres_a_chart_for_that_109106.html
115. ^{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/bju.13010| title = Am I normal? A systematic review and construction of nomograms for flaccid and erect penis length and circumference in up to 15 521 men| journal = BJU International| volume = 115| issue = 6| pages = 978–986| year = 2015| last1 = Veale | first1 = D. | last2 = Miles | first2 = S. | last3 = Bramley | first3 = S. | last4 = Muir | first4 = G. | last5 = Hodsoll | first5 = J. }}
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118. ^Gadow, H. On the systematic position of Notoryctes typhlops. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1892, 361–370 (1892).
119. ^Riedelsheimer, B., Unterberger, P., Künzle, H. and U. Welsch. 2007. Histological study of the cloacal region and associated structures in the hedgehog tenrec Echinops telfairi. Mammalian Biology 72(6): 330-341.
120. ^{{cite book|author1=Michael L. Augee|author2=Brett A. Gooden|author3=Anne Musser|title=Echidna: Extraordinary Egg-laying Mammal|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2UQH-YrWwCYC&q=penis|accessdate=23 July 2013|date=January 2006|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=978-0-643-09204-4|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182613/http://books.google.com/books?id=2UQH-YrWwCYC&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
121. ^{{cite news | url = https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12838 | title = Exhibitionist spiny anteater reveals bizarre penis | first = N. | last = Shultz | work = New Scientist | date = 26 October 2007 | accessdate = 27 October 2006 | deadurl = no | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071222214027/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12838 | archivedate = 22 December 2007 | df = }}
122. ^{{cite book|author1=Larry Vogelnest|author2=Rupert Woods|title=Medicine of Australian Mammals|url=https://books.google.com/?id=lWbgqMsyq8UC&q=penis|accessdate=23 July 2013|date=18 August 2008|publisher=Csiro Publishing|isbn=978-0-643-09928-9|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326182237/http://books.google.com/books?id=lWbgqMsyq8UC&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=26 March 2014|df=}}
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127. ^{{cite book|last=Giustina|first=Anthony|title=Sex World Records|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_FBGVW9qKpAC&pg=PA152&q=penis|accessdate=3 October 2012|date=31 December 2005|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-1-4116-6774-7|page=152|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011084322/http://books.google.com/books?id=_FBGVW9qKpAC&pg=PA152&q=penis&f=false|archivedate=11 October 2013|df=}}
128. ^Shoshani, p. 80.
129. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oB4Y4dag7GwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=elephant%20penis&f=false|title=Smithers' Mammals of Southern Africa: A Field Guide|accessdate=2013-06-22|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131011082833/http://books.google.com/books?id=oB4Y4dag7GwC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=elephant%20penis&f=false|archivedate=2013-10-11|df=|isbn=9781868725502|last1=Smithers|first1=Reay H. N.|date=March 2008}}
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137. ^{{cite journal |title=So Small, So Loud: Extremely High Sound Pressure Level from a Pygmy Aquatic Insect (Corixidae, Micronectinae) |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e21089 |df= |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021089 |pmid=21698252 |pmc=3115974 |year = 2011|last1 = Sueur|first1 = Jérôme|last2=MacKie |first2=David |last3=Windmill |first3=James F. C. }}
138. ^{{cite journal|first=Charles|last=Lienhard|first2=Thais|last2=Oliveira do Carmo|first3=Rodrigo|last3=Lopes Ferreira|year=2010|url=http://biostor.org/reference/134593|title=A new genus of Sensitibillini from Brazilian caves (Psocodea: 'Psocoptera': Prionoglarididae)|journal=Revue Suisse de Zoologie|volume=117|issue=4|pages=611–635|issn=0035-418X|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103042552/http://biostor.org/reference/134593|archivedate=2014-11-03|df=|doi=10.5962/bhl.part.117600}}
139. ^{{cite journal|author=Kazunori Yoshizawae |author2=Rodrigo L. Ferreira |author3=Yoshitaka Kamimura |author4=Charles Lienhard |title=Female Penis, Male Vagina, and Their Correlated Evolution in a Cave Insect|journal=Current Biology|date=17 April 2014|url=http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(14)00314-5|archive-url=https://archive.is/20140417173448/http://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(14)00314-5|dead-url=yes|archive-date=17 April 2014|accessdate=27 April 2014|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.022 |volume=24 |issue=9 |pages=1006–1010 |pmid=24746797}}
140. ^{{cite news|title=In sex-reversed cave insects, females have the penises.|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140417101146.htm|accessdate=27 April 2014|newspaper=Science Daily|date=17 April 2014|author=Cell Press|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426233436/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/04/140417101146.htm|archivedate=26 April 2014|df=}}
141. ^Walker, M. 2010. Super squid sex organ discovered {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707185137/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8792000/8792008.stm |date=2010-07-07 }}. BBC Earth News, July 7, 2010.
142. ^1 Arkhipkin, A.I. & V.V. Laptikhovsky 2010. Observation of penis elongation in Onykia ingens: implications for spermatophore transfer in deep-water squid. Journal of Molluscan Studies, published online on June 30, 2010. {{DOI|10.1093/mollus/eyq019}}
143. ^{{cite book |last1=Basu |first1=S. C. |title=Male Reproductive Dysfunction |date=2011 |publisher=JP Medical Ltd |isbn=9789350252208 |page=101 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BoL2I7yg67cC&pg=PA101&lpg=PA101&dq=Simpson,+John;+Weiner,+Edmund,+eds.+(1989).+%22yard,+n.2%22.+Oxford+English+Dictionary#v=onepage&q=Simpson%2C%20John%3B%20Weiner%2C%20Edmund%2C%20eds.%20(1989).%20%22yard%2C%20n.2%22.%20Oxford%20English%20Dictionary&f=false |language=en}}
144. ^{{Cite book|title=Oxford English Dictionary|contribution=penis, n.|contribution-url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50174565|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor-last=Simpson|editor-first=John|editor-link=John Simpson (lexicographer)|isbn=978-0-19-861186-8|year=1989|edition=second|title-link=Oxford English Dictionary}}{{Dead link|date=June 2013}}
145. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=penis&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |accessdate=2011-05-28 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606085622/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=penis&searchmode=none |archivedate=2011-06-06 |df= }}
146. ^{{Cite journal |last=Rietstap |first=J. B. |title=Armorial général; précédé d'un Dictionnaire des termes du blason |year=1884 |page=XXXI |publisher=G. B. van Goor zonen |quote=Vilené: se dit un animal qui a la marque du sexe d'un autre émail que le corps |url= https://books.google.com/?id=UccFAAAAQAAJ&q=vilen%C3%A9+#v=snippet&q=XXXI&f=false |postscript={{inconsistent citations}}}}

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{{refend}}

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{{refend}}

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{{refend}}

External links

{{Wiktionary|penis}}
  • {{Commons-inline|Penis}}
  • Kinsey Institute on the penis
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