| 词条 | Luxembourgish | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
|name = Luxembourgish |nativename = Lëtzebuergesch |pronunciation={{IPA-lb|ˈlətsəbuə̯jəʃ||lb-lëtzebuergesch.ogg}} |states = Luxembourg; Saarland and north-west Rhineland‑Palatinate, Germany; Arelerland and Saint-Vith district, Belgium; Moselle department, France |region = Western Europe |speakers = c. 390,000 |date = 2010 |ref = [1] |script = Latin (Luxembourgish alphabet) Luxembourgish Braille |familycolor = Indo-European |fam2 = Germanic |fam3 = West Germanic |fam4 = High German |fam5 = West Central German |fam6 = Central Franconian |fam7 = Moselle Franconian |nation = {{LUX}} |minority = {{BEL}} (recognised by the French Community of Belgium) |agency = |iso1 = lb |iso2 = ltz |iso3 = ltz |lingua=52-ACB-db |glotto=luxe1241 |glottorefname=Luxembourgish |map = Moselfrankisch.png |mapcaption = The area where Luxembourgish (pale violet) and other dialects of Moselle Franconian (medium purple) are spoken. The internal isogloss for words meaning "of", i.e. op and of is also shown (Standard German: auf). |notice = IPA }}Luxembourgish, Luxemburgish[2] ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ʌ|k|s|əm|b|ɜːr|ɡ|ɪ|ʃ|}} {{respell|LUK|səm|bur|gish}}),[2] Letzeburgesch[3] ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|l|ɛ|t|s|(|ə|)|b|ɜːr|ˈ|ɡ|ɛ|ʃ}} {{respell|LETS(-ə)|bur|GESH}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|t|s|(|ə|)|b|ɜːr|ɡ|ɪ|ʃ}} {{respell|LETS(-ə)|bur|gish}})[3] (Luxembourgish: Lëtzebuergesch), or Luxembourgian[4] is a West Germanic language that is spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 390,000 people speak Luxembourgish worldwide.[1] A variety of the Moselle Franconian dialect group, Luxembourgish has similarities with other varieties of High German and the wider group of West Germanic languages. The status of Luxembourgish as an official language in Luxembourg and the existence there of a regulatory body,[5] has removed Luxembourgish, at least in part, from the domain of Standard German, its traditional Dachsprache. Language familyLuxembourgish belongs to the West Central German group of High German languages and is the primary example of a Moselle Franconian language. UsageLuxembourgish is the national language of Luxembourg and one of three administrative languages, alongside French and German.[6][7] In Luxembourg, 50.9% of citizens can speak Luxembourgish. Luxembourgish is also spoken in the Arelerland region of Belgium (part of the Province of Luxembourg) and in small parts of Lorraine in France. In the German Eifel and Hunsrück regions, similar local Moselle Franconian dialects of German are spoken. The language is also spoken by a few descendants of Luxembourg immigrants in the United States and Canada. Additionally, in the German Eifel and Hunsrück regions, similar local Moselle Franconian dialects of German are spoken. Other Moselle Franconian dialects are spoken by ethnic Germans long settled in Transylvania, Romania (Siebenbürgen). Moselle Franconian dialects outside the Luxembourg state border tend to have far fewer French loan words, and these mostly remain from the French Revolution. VarietiesThere are several distinct dialect forms of Luxembourgish including Areler (from Arlon), Eechternoacher (Echternach), Kliärrwer (Clervaux), Miseler (Moselle), Stater (Luxembourg), Veiner (Vianden), Minetter (Southern Luxembourg) and Weelzer (Wiltz). Further small vocabulary differences may be seen even between small villages. Increasing mobility of the population and the dissemination of the language through mass media such as radio and television are leading to a gradual standardisation towards a "Standard Luxembourgish" through the process of koineization.[8] Surrounding languagesThere is no distinct geographic boundary between the use of Luxembourgish and the use of other closely related High German dialects (for example Lorraine Franconian); it instead forms a dialect continuum of gradual change. Spoken Luxembourgish is relatively hard to understand for speakers of German who are generally not familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects (or at least other West Central German dialects). However, they can usually read the language to some degree. For those Germans familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects, it is relatively easy to understand and speak Luxembourgish as far as the everyday vocabulary is concerned.[8] However, the large number of French loanwords in Luxembourgish may hamper communication about certain topics, or with certain speakers (who use many French loanwords). There is no intelligibility between Luxembourgish and French or any of the Romance dialects spoken in the adjacent parts of Belgium and France.[8] Erna Hennicot-Schoepges, President of the Christian Social People's Party of Luxembourg 1995–2003, was active in promoting the language beyond Luxembourg's borders. Written LuxembourgishStandardisationA number of proposals for standardising the orthography of Luxembourgish can be documented, going back to the middle of the 19th century. There was no officially recognised system, however, until the adoption of the "OLO" (ofizjel lezebuurjer ortografi) on 5 June 1946.[9] This orthography provided a system for speakers of all varieties of Luxembourgish to transcribe words the way they pronounced them, rather than imposing a single, standard spelling for the words of the language. The rules explicitly rejected certain elements of German orthography (e.g., the use of "ä" and "ö",[10] the capitalisation of nouns). Similarly, new principles were adopted for the spelling of French loanwords.
This proposed orthography, so different from existing "foreign" standards that people were already familiar with, did not enjoy widespread approval. A more successful standard eventually emerged from the work of the committee of specialists charged with the task of creating the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, published in 5 volumes between 1950 and 1977. The orthographic conventions adopted in this decades-long project, set out in Bruch (1955), provided the basis of the standard orthography that became official on 10 October 1975.[11] Modifications to this standard were proposed by the Conseil permanent de la langue luxembourgeoise and adopted officially in the spelling reform of 30 July 1999.[12] A detailed explanation of current practice for Luxembourgish can be found in Schanen & Lulling (2003). Alphabet{{see also|Luxembourgish Braille}}The Luxembourgish alphabet consists of the 26 Latin letters plus three letters with diacritics: "é", "ä", and "ë". In loanwords from French and Standard German, other diacritics are usually preserved:
Orthography of vowels{{col-begin|width=auto}}{{col-break}}
Eifeler Regel{{Main article|Eifeler Regel}}Like many other varieties of Western High German, Luxembourgish has a rule of final n-deletion in certain contexts. The effects of this rule (known as the "Eifel Rule") are indicated in writing, and therefore must be taken into account when spelling words and morphemes ending in {{angbr|n}} or {{angbr|nn}}. For example:
Phonology{{Main article|Luxembourgish phonology}}ConsonantsThe consonant inventory of Luxembourgish is quite similar to that of Standard German.{{sfnp|Gilles|Trouvain|2013|p=67}}
Vowels
GrammarNominal syntaxLuxembourgish has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and has three cases (nominative, accusative, and dative). These are marked morphologically on determiners and pronouns. As in German, there is no morphological gender distinction in the plural. The forms of the articles and of some selected determiners are given below:
As seen above, Luxembourgish has plural forms of en ("a, an"), namely eng in the nominative/accusative and engen in the dative. They are not used as indefinite articles, which—as in German and English—do not exist in the plural, but they do occur in the compound pronouns wéi en ("what, which") and sou en ("such"). For example: wéi eng Saachen ("what things"); sou eng Saachen ("such things"). Moreover, they are used before numbers to express an estimation: eng 30.000 Spectateuren ("some 30,000 spectators"). Distinct nominative forms survive in a few nominal phrases such as der Däiwel ("the devil") and eiser Herrgott ("our Lord"). Rare examples of the genitive are also found: Enn des Mounts ("end of the month"), Ufanks der Woch ("at the beginning of the week"). The functions of the genitive are normally expressed using a combination of the dative and a possessive determiner: e.g. dem Mann säi Buch (lit. "to the man his book", i.e. "the man's book"). This is known as a periphrastic genitive, and is a phenomenon also commonly seen in dialectal and colloquial German, and in Dutch. The forms of the personal pronouns are given in the following table (unstressed forms appear in parentheses):
The 2pl form is also used as a polite singular (like French vous, see T-V distinction); the forms are capitalised in writing: Wéi hues du de Concert fonnt? ("How did you [informal sg.] like the concert?") Wéi hutt dir de Concert fonnt? ("How did you [informal pl.] like the concert?") Wéi hutt Dir de Concert fonnt? ("How did you [formal sg. or pl.] like the concert?") Like most varieties of colloquial German, but even more invariably, Luxembourgish uses definite articles with personal names. They are obligatory and not to be translated: De Serge ass an der Kichen. ("Serge is in the kitchen.") A feature Luxembourgish shares with only some western dialects of German is that women and girls are most often referred to with forms of the neuter pronoun hatt: Dat ass d'Nathalie. Hatt ass midd, well et vill a sengem Gaart geschafft huet. ("That's Nathalie. She is tired because she has worked a lot in her garden.") AdjectivesLuxembourgish morphology distinguishes two types of adjective: attributive and predicative. Predicative adjectives appear with verbs like sinn ("to be"), and receive no extra ending:
Attributive adjectives are placed before the noun they describe, and change their ending according to the grammatical gender, number, and case:
Curiously, the definite article changes with the use of an attributive adjective: feminine d' goes to déi (or di), neuter d' goes to dat, and plural d' changes to déi. The comparative in Luxembourgish is formed analytically, i.e. the adjective itself is not altered (compare the use of -er in German and English; tall → taller, klein → kleiner). Instead it is formed using the adverb méi: e.g. schéin → méi schéin
The superlative involves a synthetic form consisting of the adjective and the suffix -st: e.g. schéin → schéinst (compare German schönst, English prettiest). Attributive modification requires the emphatic definite article and the inflected superlative adjective:
Predicative modification uses either the same adjectival structure or the adverbial structure am+ -sten: e.g. schéin → am schéinsten:
Some common adjectives have exceptional comparative and superlative forms:
Several other adjectives also have comparative forms. However, these are not commonly used as normal comparatives, but in special senses:
Word orderLuxembourgish exhibits "verb second" word order in clauses. More specifically, Luxembourgish is a V2-SOV language, like German and Dutch. In other words, we find the following finite clausal structures:
Ech kafen en Hutt. Muer kafen ech en Hutt. (lit. "I buy a hat. Tomorrow buy I a hat.) Wat kafen ech haut? (lit. "What buy I today?")
Bass de midd? ("Are you tired?") Gëff mer deng Hand! ("Give me your hand!")
Du weess, datt ech midd sinn. (lit. "You know, that I tired am.") Non-finite verbs (infinitives and participles) generally appear in final position:
Ech hunn en Hutt kaf. (lit. "I have a hat bought.")
Du solls net esou vill Kaffi drénken. (lit. "You should not so much coffee drink.")
Nëmme Lëtzebuergesch schwätzen! (lit. "Only Luxembourgish speak!") These rules interact so that in subordinate clauses, the finite verb and any non-finite verbs must all cluster at the end. Luxembourgish allows different word orders in these cases: Hie freet, ob ech komme kann. (cf. German Er fragt, ob ich kommen kann.) (lit. "He asks if I come can.") Hie freet, ob ech ka kommen. (cf. Dutch Hij vraagt of ik kan komen.) (lit. "He asks if I can come.") This is also the case when two non-finite verb forms occur together: Ech hunn net kënne kommen. (cf. Dutch Ik heb niet kunnen komen.) (lit, "I can't come") Ech hunn net komme kënnen. (cf. German Ich habe nicht kommen können.) (lit, "I come can't") Luxembourgish (like Dutch and German) allows prepositional phrases to appear after the verb cluster in subordinate clauses: alles, wat Der ëmmer wollt wëssen iwwer Lëtzebuerg (lit. "everything what you always wanted know about Luxembourg") VocabularyLuxembourgish has borrowed many French words. For example, the name for a bus driver is Buschauffeur (also Dutch and Swiss German), which would be Busfahrer in German and chauffeur de bus in French. Some words are different from Standard German but have equivalents in German dialects. An example is Gromperen (potatoes – German: Kartoffeln). Other words are exclusive to Luxembourgish. Selected common phrases{{Audio|Letzbg.ogg|Listen to the words below.}}Note: Words spoken in sound clip do not reflect all words on this list.
NeologismsNeologisms in Luxembourgish include both entirely new words, and the attachment of new meanings to old words in everyday speech. The most recent neologisms come from the English language in the fields of telecommunications, computer science, and the Internet. Recent neologisms in Luxembourgish include:[13]
Academic projectsBetween 2000 and 2002, Luxembourgish linguist Jérôme Lulling compiled a lexical database of 125,000 word forms as the basis for the very first Luxembourgish spellchecker (Projet C.ORT.IN.A). The LaF (Lëtzebuergesch als Friemsprooch – Luxembourgish as a Foreign Language) is a set of four language proficiency certifications for Luxembourgish and follows the ALTE framework of language examination standards. The tests are administered by the Institut National des Langues Luxembourg.[14] The "Centre for Luxembourg Studies" at the University of Sheffield was founded in 1995 on the initiative of Professor Gerald Newton. It is supported by the government of Luxembourg which funds an endowed chair in Luxembourg Studies at the university.[15] The first class of students to study the language outside of the country as undergraduate students began their studies at the 'Centre for Luxembourg Studies' at Sheffield in the academic year 2011–2012. See also{{Portal|Luxembourg|Languages}}
Footnotes{{notelist}}1. ^1 {{cite web|title=Le nombre de locuteurs du luxembourgeois revu à la hausse|url=http://infolux.uni.lu/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Presse-UNESCO-2010-2009.pdf|accessdate=8 November 2012}} 2. ^1 {{cite web|title=Luxemburgish – definition of Luxemburgish in English from the Oxford dictionary|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Luxemburgish|accessdate=21 March 2015}} 3. ^1 {{cite web|title=Letzeburgesch – definition of Luxembourgish in English from the Oxford dictionary|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Letzeburgesch|accessdate=21 March 2015}} 4. ^*{{cite journal|work=Undoing and Redoing Corpus Planning |editor=Michael G. Clyne |year=1997 |isbn=9783110155099 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=249 |title=Diets, Nederlands, Nederduits, Hollands, Vlaams, Belgisch-Nederlands |author=Kas Deprez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tM3PrFFSiVgC&lpg=PA249}}*{{cite book |title=Immigrants and Cultural Development in European Towns |author=Bengt Skoog |year=1983 |publisher=Council for Cultural Co-operation |isbn=9789287102393 |page=51}}*{{cite book |title=Our Country's Regions: Outline maps |author=National Geographic Society |publisher=Macmillan/McGraw-Hill |year=2005 |isbn=9780021496259 |page=59}} 5. ^Law establishing the Conseil Permanent de la Langue Luxembourgeoise (CPLL) 6. ^Mémorial A no. 16 (27 February 1984), pp. 196–7: "Loi du 24 février 1984 sur le régime des langues". 7. ^{{Cite book|title=Luxemburger Lexikon - Das Großherzogtum von A-Z|last=Hausemer|first=Georges|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=}} 8. ^1 2 Ammon, Ulrich - Die Stellung der deutschen Sprache in der Welt (de Gruyter Mouton); {{ISBN|978-3-11-019298-8}} 9. ^Mémorial A no. 40 (7 September 1946), pp. 637–41: "Arrêté ministériel du 5 juin 1946 portant fixation d'un système officiel d'orthographe luxembourgeois" 10. ^"Et get kèèn ä geshriven. […] Et get kèèn ö geshriven." (p. 639) 11. ^Mémorial B no. 68 (16 November 1976), pp. 1365–90: "Arrêté ministériel du 10 octobre 1975 portant réforme du système officiel d'orthographe luxembourgeoise". 12. ^Mémorial A no. 112 (11 August 1999), pp. 2040–8: "Règlement grand-ducal du 30 juillet 1999 portant réforme du système officiel d'orthographe luxembourgeoise". 13. ^Lulling, Jérôme. (2002) La créativité lexicale en luxembourgeois, Doctoral thesis, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier III 14. ^Institut national des langues – INL – Passer un examen à l'INL {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150508061725/http://www.insl.lu/Francais/page3/p3frame.htm |date=8 May 2015 }} 15. ^{{Cite web|title=Centre for Luxembourg Studies|url=http://shef.ac.uk/luxembourg-studies|accessdate=11 September 2011}} References{{refbegin}}
|last1=Gilles |first1=Peter |last2=Trouvain |first2=Jürgen |year=2013 |title=Luxembourgish |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=67–74 |doi=10.1017/S0025100312000278 |url=http://orbilu.uni.lu/bitstream/10993/1143/1/Illustrations_Luxembourgish%20-%2017%20-%20revised%20version%20after%202nd%20revision%20-%20mit%20Bilder.pdf }}
Further readingIn English
|last=Tamura |first=Kenichi |year=2011 |title=The Wiltz Dialect in a Luxembourgish Drama for Children: Analysis of the Script for "Den Zauberer vun Oz" (2005) |journal=Bulletin of Aichi University of Education |volume=60 |pages=11–21 |url=http://repository.aichi-edu.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10424/3802/1/kenjin601121.pdf |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070204/http://repository.aichi-edu.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10424/3802/1/kenjin601121.pdf |archivedate=4 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}In French
External links{{InterWiki|code=lb}}{{Commons category}}
14 : Luxembourgish language|Germanic languages|Central German languages|German dialects|Languages of Belgium|Languages of France|Languages of Luxembourg|National symbols of Luxembourg|Verb-second languages|Walloon culture|Liège (province)|Luxembourg (Belgium)|Arlon|St. Vith |
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