词条 | Madhhab |
释义 |
A {{transl|ar|ALA|madhhab}} ({{lang-ar|مذهب}} {{transl|ar|DIN|maḏhab}}, {{IPA-ar|ˈmaðhab|IPA}}, "way to act"; pl. {{lang|ar|مذاهب}} {{transl|ar|DIN|maḏāhib}}, {{IPA-ar|maˈðaːhɪb|}}) is a school of thought within fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The major Sunni madhhabs are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.[1] They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE and by the twelfth century almost all jurists aligned themselves with a particular madhhab.[2] These four schools recognize each other's validity and they have interacted in legal debate over the centuries.[2][1] Rulings of these schools are followed across the Muslim world without exclusive regional restrictions, but they each came to dominate in different parts of the world.[2][1] For example, the Maliki school is predominant in North and West Africa; the Hanafi school in South and Central Asia; the Shafi'i school in East Africa and Southeast Asia; and the Hanbali school in North and Central Arabia.[2][1][3] The first centuries of Islam also witnessed a number of short-lived Sunni madhhabs.[4] The Zahiri school, which is commonly identified as extinct, continues to exert influence over legal thought.[4][1][2] The development of Shia legal schools occurred along the lines of theological differences and resulted in formation of the Twelver, Zaidi and Ismaili madhhabs, whose differences from Sunni legal schools are roughly of the same order as the differences among Sunni schools.[4][3] The Ibadi legal school, distinct from Sunni and Shia madhhabs, is predominant in Oman.[1] The transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. With the spread of codified state laws in the Muslim world, the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly drew on rulings from multiple madhhabs, and legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulema as interpreters of the resulting laws.[2] In the 20th century many Islamic jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional madhhabs.[18] The Amman Message, which was endorsed in 2005 by prominent Islamic scholars around the world, recognized four Sunni schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali), two Shia schools (Ja'fari, Zaidi), the Ibadi school and the Zahiri school.[5] History"Ancient" schoolsAccording to John Burton, “modern research shows” that fiqh was first “regionally organized” with “considerable disagreement and variety of view”. In the second century of Islam, schools of fiqh were noted for the loyalty of their jurists to the legal practices of their local communities, whether Mecca, Kufa, Basra, Syria, etc.[6] (Egypt's school in Fustat was a branch of Medina's school of law and followed such practices -- up until the end of the 8th century -- as basing verdict on one single witness (not two) and the oath of the claimant. Its principal jurist in the second half of the 8th century was al-Layth b. Sa'd.){{#tag:ref| It is usually assumed that no regional school developed in Egypt (unlike in Syria, Iraq and the Hijaz). Joseph Schacht states that the legal milieu of Fustat (ancient Cairo) was a branch of the Medinan school of law.[7] Regarding judicial practices, the qadis (judges) of Fustat resorted to the procedure called "al-yamin ma'a l-shahid", that is, the ability of the judge to base his verdict on one single witness and the oath of the claimant, instead of two witnesses as was usually required. Such a procedure was quite common under the early Umayyads, but by the early Abbasid period it had disappeared in Iraq and it was now regarded as the {{'}}amal ("good practice") of Medina. Up until the end of the 8th century, the qadis of Fustat were still using this "Medinan" procedure and differentiated themselves from Iraqi practices. From a doctrinal point of view, however, the legal affiliation of Egypt could be more complex. The principal Egyptian jurist in the second half of the 8th century is al-Layth b. Sa'd.[8] The only writing of his that has survived is a letter he wrote to Malik b. Anas, which has been preserved by Yahya b. Ma'in and al-Fasawi. In this letter, he proclaims his theoretical affiliation to the Medinan methodology and recognizes the value of the {{'}}amal. Nevertheless, he distances himself from the Medinan School by opposing a series of Medinan legal views. He maintains that the common practice in other cities is also valuable, and thus implicitly defends the Egyptians’ adherence to their own local tradition. Thus it is possible that, even though it did not develop into a formal school of law, a specific Egyptian legal milieu was distinct of the Medinan School in the 8th century.[9]|group=Note}} Al-Shafi‘i writes that, `every capital of the Muslims is a seat of learning whose people follow the opinion of one of their countrymen in most of his teachings`.[10][11] The "real basis" of legal doctrine in these "ancient schools" was not a body of reports of Muhammad's sayings, doings, silent approval (the ahadith) or even those of his Companions, but the `living tradition` of the school as "expressed in the consensus of the scholars", according to Joseph Schacht.[12]Al-Shafi‘i and afterIt has been asserted that madhahib were consolidated in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse.[13] Historians have differed regarding the times at which the various schools emerged. One interpretation is that Sunni Islam was initially{{when|date=December 2013}} split into four groups: the Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites and Zahirites.[14] Later, the Hanbalites and Jarirites developed two more schools; then various dynasties effected the eventual exclusion of the Jarirites;[15] eventually, the Zahirites were also excluded when the Mamluk Sultanate established a total of four independent judicial positions, thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools.[13] The Ottoman Empire later reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to Shi'ite Persia.[16] Some are of the view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: Ahl al-Ra'i ("people of opinions", emphasizing scholarly judgment and reason) and Ahl al-Hadith ("people of traditions", emphasizing strict interpretation of scripture).[17] 10th century Shi'ite scholar Ibn al-Nadim named eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, Imami Shi'ite, Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri and Kharijite.[15][18] In the 12th century Jariri and Zahiri schools were absorbed by the Shafi'i school.[19] Ibn Khaldun defined only three Sunni madhahib: Hanafi, Zahiri, and one encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools as existing initially,[20][21] noting that by the 14th-century historian the Zahiri school had become extinct,[22][23] only for it to be revived again in parts of the Muslim world by the mid-20th century.[24][25][26] Historically, the fiqh schools were often in political and academic conflict with one another, vying for favor with the ruling government in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions.[16] Geographer and historian Al-Muqaddasi once satirically categorized competing madhahib with contrasting personal qualities: Hanafites, highly conscious of being hired for official positions, appeared deft, well-informed, devout and prudent; Malikites, dull and obtuse, confined themselves to observance of prophetic tradition; Shafi'ites were shrewd, impatient, understanding and quick-tempered; Zahirites haughty, irritable, loquacious and well-to-do; Shi'ites, entrenched and intractable in old rancor, enjoyed riches and fame; and Hanbalites, anxious to practice what they preached, were charitable and inspiring.[27] While such descriptions were almost assuredly humorous in nature, ancient differences were less to do with actual doctrinal opinions than with maneuvering for adherents and influence.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} Modern eraThe transformations of Islamic legal institutions in the modern era have had profound implications for the madhhab system. Legal practice in most of the Muslim world has come to be controlled by government policy and state law, so that the influence of the madhhabs beyond personal ritual practice depends on the status accorded to them within the national legal system. State law codification commonly utilized the methods of takhayyur (selection of rulings without restriction to a particular madhhab) and talfiq (combining parts of different rulings on the same question). Legal professionals trained in modern law schools have largely replaced traditional ulema as interpreters of the resulting laws. Global Islamic movements have at times drawn on different madhhabs and at other times placed greater focus on the scriptural sources rather than classical jurisprudence. The Hanbali school, with its particularly strict adherence to the Quran and hadith, has inspired conservative currents of direct scriptural interpretation by the Salafi and Wahhabi movements.[28] In the 20th century many Islamic jurists began to assert their intellectual independence from traditional schools of jurisprudence.[29] Examples of the latter approach include networks of Indonesian ulema and Islamic scholars residing in Muslim-minority countries, who have advanced liberal interpretations of Islamic law.[2] List of schoolsGenerally, Sunnis have a single preferred madhhab from region to region, but also believe that ijtihad must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so. Most rely on taqlid, or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.[30][31] Experts and scholars of fiqh follow the usul (principles) of their own native madhhab, but they also study the usul, evidences, and opinions of other madhahib. Sunni{{Sunni Islam|Sunni Schools of Law}}Sunni schools of jurisprudence are each named after the classical jurist who taught them. The four primary Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali rites. The Zahiri school remains in existence but outside of the mainstream, while the Jariri, Laythi, Awza'i, Thawri, & Qurtubi have become extinct. The extant schools share most of their rulings, but differ on the particular practices which they may accept as authentic and the varying weights they give to analogical reason and pure reason.
Shia{{Shia Islam|collapsed=1}}{{Twelvers|collapsed=1}}
IbadiThe Ibadi school of Islam is named after Abd-Allah ibn Ibadh, though he is not necessarily the main figure of the school in the eyes of its adherents. Ibadism is distinct from both Sunni and Shi'ite Islam not only in terms of its jurisprudence, but also its core beliefs. Amman Message{{Main article|Amman Message}}The Amman Message was a statement, signed in 2005 in Jordan by nearly 200 prominent Islamic jurists, which served as a "counter-fatwa" against a widespread use of takfir (excommunication) by jihadist groups to justify jihad against rulers of Muslim-majority countries. The Amman Message recognized eight legitimate schools of Islamic law and prohibited declarations of apostasy against them.[39][40][41]
The statement also asserted that fatwas can be issued only by properly trained muftis, thereby seeking to delegitimize fatwas issued by militants who lack the requisite qualifications.[40] See also
ReferencesNotes1. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |first=Intisar A. |last=Rabb |title=Fiqh |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001|isbn=9780195305135 }} 2. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |first=Iza |last=Hussin |title=Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|isbn=9780199739356 }} 3. ^1 {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |first=Knut S. |last=Vikør |title=Sharīʿah |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |url=http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226 |accessdate=3 September 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202054116/http://bridgingcultures.neh.gov/muslimjourneys/items/show/226# |archivedate=2 February 2017 |deadurl=yes |df= }} 4. ^1 2 {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |first=Norman |last=Calder |title=Law. Legal Thought and Jurisprudence |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |editor=John L. Esposito |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=2009 |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t236/e0473}} 5. ^{{cite web|title=Amman Message|url=http://ammanmessage.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=15&Itemid=29&limit=1&limitstart=1}} 6. ^Burton, Islamic Theories of Abrogation, 1990: p.13 7. ^J. Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), p. 9 8. ^R.G. Khoury, "Al-Layth Ibn Sa'd (94/713-175/791), grand maître et mécène de l’Egypte, vu à travers quelques documents islamiques anciens", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40, 1981, p. 189–202 9. ^Mathieu Tillier, "[https://www.academia.edu/1470575/Les_premiers_cadis_de_Fus_a_et_les_dynamiques_regionales_de_linnovation_judiciaire_750-833_ Les “premiers” cadis de Fusṭāṭ et les dynamiques régionales de l’innovation judiciaire (750-833)]", Annales Islamologiques, 45 (2011), p. 214–218 10. ^{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |origyear= 1950 |year= 1959 |page=246 }} 11. ^{{cite book |last1=Shafi'i |page=148. Kitab Ikhtilaf Malid wal-Shafi'i | title=Kitab al-Umm vol. vii}} 12. ^{{cite book |title=The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence |last1=Schacht |first=Joseph |publisher=Oxford University Press |origyear= 1950 |year= 1959 |page=98 }} 13. ^1 {{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Islamic_law.aspx |title=Law, Islamic |work=Encyclopedia.com |accessdate=13 March 2012 }} 14. ^Mohammad Sharif Khan and Mohammad Anwar Saleem, Muslim Philosophy And Philosophers, pg. 34. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994. 15. ^1 Christopher Melchert, The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law: 9th-10th Centuries C.E., pg. 178. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997. 16. ^1 Chibli Mallat, Introduction to Middle Eastern Law, pg. 116. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-19-923049-5}} 17. ^Murtada Mutahhari, The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation, Al-Tawhid volume IV, No.2, Publisher: Islamic Thought Foundation 18. ^Devin J. Stewart, THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIHRIST: IBN AL-NADIM AS HISTORIAN OF ISLAMIC LEGAL AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS, International Journal of Middle East Studies, v.39, pg.369-387, Cambridge University Press, 2007 19. ^{{cite book|last1=Crone|first1=Patricia|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|date=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=498|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&pg=PA498&dq=zahiri+absorbed+princeton&hl=en&sa=X&ei=QnVTVaLpOo-gyQSNw4CwBg&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=zahiri%20absorbed%20princeton&f=false|accessdate=13 May 2015}} 20. ^Ignác Goldziher, The Zahiris, pg. 5. Trns. Wolfgang Behn, intro. Camilla Adang. Volume three of Brill Classics in Islam. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2008. {{ISBN|9789004162419}} 21. ^Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, [https://archive.is/20130103002610/http://www.grandestrategy.com/2012/01/6655434312-chapter-nine-new-medina.html The Legal System], Grande Strategy, January 5th, 2012 22. ^{{cite book|last1=Wolfgang|first1=Behn|title=The Zahiris|date=1999|publisher=BRILL|page=178|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=j_OIhpI9jfEC&pg=PA178&dq=ibn+khaldun+zahiri&hl=en&sa=X&ei=c_9PVevPA8-KyATczoGQDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=ibn%20khaldun%20zahiri&f=false|accessdate=11 May 2015}} 23. ^{{cite book|last1=Berkey|first1=Jonathon|title=The Formation of Islam|date=2003|publisher=Cambrdige University Press|page=216|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=mLV6lo4mvj0C&pg=PA216&dq=khaldun+zahiri&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lfRPVbKrI5KoyATonYD4Cg&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=khaldun%20zahiri&f=false|accessdate=11 May 2015}} 24. ^Daniel W. Brown, Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought: Vol. 5 of Cambridge Middle East Studies, pgs. 28 and 32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|9780521653947}} 25. ^M. Mahmood, The Code of Muslim Family Laws, pg. 37. Pakistan Law Times Publications, 2006. 6th ed. 26. ^Hassan Ahmed Ibrahim, "An Overview of al-Sadiq al-Madhi's Islamic Discourse." Taken from The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought, pg. 172. Ed. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi'. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. {{ISBN|9781405178488}} 27. ^Louis Massignon, The Passion of al-Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam. Trans. Herbert W. Mason. Pg. 130. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. 28. ^{{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv |first=Iza |last=Hussin |title=Sunni Schools of Jurisprudence |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor=Emad El-Din Shahin |year=2014 |doi=10.1093/acref:oiso/9780199739356.001.0001|isbn=9780199739356 }} 29. ^1 {{cite encyclopedia|ref=harv |first1=Brinkley|last1=Messick |first2=Joseph A.|last2=Kéchichian|title=Fatwā. Process and Function|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243}} 30. ^ 31. ^On Islam, Muslims and the 500 most influential figures 32. ^"Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī aqidah" of "Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim Sulaiman ibn Ahmad ibn at-Tabarānī fiqh" (Sūlaiman Affandy, Al-Bākūrat’ūs Sūlaiman’īyyah - Family tree of the Nusayri Tariqat, pp. 14-15, Beirut, 1873.) 33. ^Both Muhammad ibn Āliyy’ūl Cillī and Maymūn ibn Abu’l-Qāsim’at-Tabarānī were the murids of "Al-Khaṣībī", the founder of the Nusayri tariqat. 34. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-alawi.htm|title=Alawi Islam|author=John Pike|publisher=|accessdate=15 February 2015}} 35. ^Article by Sayyid 'Ali ibn 'Ali Al-Zaidi, التاريخ الصغير عن الشيعة اليمنيين (A short History of the Yemenite Shi‘ites, 2005) 36. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ElRUvoVRxYC&pg=PA118&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false|title=Islamic Finance|publisher=}} 37. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA917&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false|title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and ...|publisher=}} 38. ^{{better source|date=November 2018}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-3LAlfW7DIC&pg=PA91&dq=Zaydis+use+hanafi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OSQiUeC5HrKM0wWjmIBI&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=Zaydis%20use%20hanafi&f=false|title=The Iraq Effect|publisher=}} 39. ^{{cite encyclopedia|first=Jocelyn|last=Hendrickson|title=Fatwa|editor=Gerhard Böwering, Patricia Crone|encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|ref=harv}} 40. ^1 {{cite encyclopedia|ref=harv |first1=Ahmad S. |last1=Dallal|first2=Jocelyn|last2=Hendrickson|title=Fatwā. Modern usage|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor=John L. Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/e0243}} 41. ^The Three Points of The Amman Message V.1 Citations{{Reflist|30em}}Books and articles
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