“Maratha”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Maratha are an Indian caste, originally of Marathi-speaking peasant-warriors. They established the Maratha Empire in 1674 and were the dominant power on the subcontinent for much of the following century before their downfall in 1818. They were champions of Hinduism in the face of the Islamic Mughal Empire.^[1]^[2]^[3]

The term Maratha is used in three overlapping senses: within the Marathi-speaking region it refers to the single dominant Maratha caste or to the group of Maratha and Kunbi castes; outside Maharashtra, the term often loosely designates the entire regional population speaking the Marathi language. The "Maratha group of castes" is a largely rural class of peasant cultivators, landowners, and soldiers."^[3]

According to the Maharashtrian historian, B.R.Sunthankar, and scholars such as Rajendra Vora, the "Maratha caste" is a "caste of peasants" which formed the bulk of the Maharashtrian society together with the other Kunbi peasant caste. Vora adds that the Maratha caste is the largest caste of India and dominate the power structure in Maharashtra, especially in the rural society.^[4]^[5]

According to Jeremy Black, British historian at the University of Exeter, "Maratha caste is a coalescence of peasants, shepherds, ironworkers, etc. as a result of serving in the military in the 17th and 18th century".^[6] According to one scholar, Marathas are dominant in rural areas and mainly constitute the landed peasantry.^[7] As of 2018, 80% of the members of the Maratha caste were farmers.^[8]

History

The term "Maratha" originally referred to the speakers of the Marathi language. In the 17th century, it emerged as a designation for peasants from Deccan who served as soldiers in the armies of Muslim rulers and later in the armies of Shivaji Maharaj. Thus the term 'Maratha'

became a marker of an endogamous caste.{{sfn|Hansen|2001|p=31}} A number of Maratha warriors, including Shivaji's father, Shahaji, originally served in those Muslim armies.^[13] By the mid-1660s, Shivaji had established an independent Maratha kingdom.^[14] After Shivaji's death, Marathas fought under his sons and defeated Aurangzeb in the war of 27 years. It was further expanded into a vast empire by the Maratha Confederacy including Peshwas, stretching from central India^[15] in the south, to Peshawar^[16] (in modern-day Pakistan) on the Afghanistan border in the north, and with expeditions to Bengal in the east.

By the 19th century, the empire had become a confederacy of individual states controlled by Maratha chiefs such as Gaikwad's of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore, the Scindias of Gwalior, the Puars of Dhar and Dewas, and Bhonsles of Nagpur.{{citation needed|date=April 2016}} The Confederacy remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British East India Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818).^[17]{{page needed|date=December 2014}}

By 19th century, the term Maratha had several interpretations in the British administrative records. In the Thane District Gazetteer of 1882, the term was used to denote elite layers within various castes: for example, "Maratha-Agri" within Agri caste, "Maratha-Koli" within Koli caste and so on.{{sfn|Hansen|2001|p=31}} In the Pune District, the words Kunbi and Maratha had become synonymous, giving rise to the Maratha-Kunbi caste complex.{{sfn|O'Hanlon|2002|p=45}} The Pune District Gazetteer of 1882 divided the Kunbis into two classes: Marathas and other Kunbis.{{sfn|Hansen|2001|p=31}} The 1901 census listed three groups within the Maratha-Kunbi caste complex: "Marathas proper", "Maratha Kunbis" and Konkan Maratha.{{sfn|O'Hanlon|2002|p=47}}

According to Steele, in the early 19th century, Kunbis, who were agriculturists and the Marathas who claimed Rajput descent and Kshatriya status - were distinguished by their customs related to widow remarriage. The Kunbis allowed it and the higher status Marathas prohibited it. However, there is no statistical evidence for this.{{sfn|Haynes|1992|p=65|ps= The prohibition of widow remarriage, Steele reported, served also to mark a ranking within caste groupings, distinguishing Maratha families claiming a Rajput descent and Kshatriya status from ordinary Kunbi communities of agriculturists: "such of them are the high Mahratta (as the families of the Satara Raja, and other houses of pure Mahratta descent) do not allow their widows to form Pat'. In the absence of any sort of statistical evidence, it is hard to know how accurate Steele's report was.}}

As per academic scholars, historically, the Maratha population was more than 31% in Maharashtra and the Kunbi was 7%, whereas the upper castes - Brahmins, Saraswats, and Prabhus were earlier only about 4% of the population although modern values show that the percentage of Brahmins in Maharashtra is now close to 10%. The Other Backward Class population (other than the Kunbi) was 27% while the population of the Mahars was 12%.^[18]^[19]^[20]^[21]

Gradually, the term Maratha came to denote an endogamous caste.{{sfn|Hansen|2001|p=31}} From 1900 onwards, the Satyashodhak Samaj movement defined the Marathas as a broader social category of non-Brahmin groups.{{sfn|Hansen|2001|p=32}} These non-Brahmins gained prominence in Indian National Congress during the Indian independence movement. In independent India, these Marathas became the dominant political force in the newly-formed state of Maharashtra.{{sfn|Hansen|2001|p=34}}

The caste hierarchy in Maharashtra is led by the Brahmins - Deshasthas, Chitpawans, Karhades, Saraswats and the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus(CKP). The Maratha are ranked lower than the Pathare Prabhus, CKPs, Brahmins etc. in the caste hierarchy but are considered higher than the Kunbi , backward castes and castes that were considered ritually impure.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]

Origin

Modern research has revealed that the Marathas and Kunbi have the same origin - although the two are treated as two different communities currently on a social level. Most recently, the Kunbi origin of the Maratha has been explained in detail by Professor Richard Eaton from the University of Arizona and Professor Stewart Gordon. The Kunbis who served the Muslim rulers, prospered, and over time adopted different customs like different dressing styles, started identifying as Maratha and caste boundaries solidified between them. In the nineteenth century, economic prosperity rather than marital service to the Muslims replaced the mobility into Maratha identity. Eaton gives an example of the Holkar family that originally belonged to the Dhangar(Shepherd) caste but was given a Maratha or even an "arch-Maratha" identity.^[26]^[27] The other example, given by Professor Susan Bayly of Cambridge University, is of the Bhonsles who originated among the populations of the Deccani tiller-plainsmen who were known by the names Kunbi and Maratha.^[28]

Professor Dhanmanjiri Sathe from the University of Pune states that "The line between Marathas and Kunbis is thin and sometimes difficult to ascertain".^[29] Iravati Karve, Anthropologist, University of Pune, showed how the Maratha caste was generated from Kunbis who simply started calling themselves "Maratha". She states that Maratha, Kunbi and Mali are the three main farming communities of Maharashtra - the difference being that the marathas and Kunbis were "dry farmers" whereas the Mali farmed throughout the year.^[30] John Vincent Ferreira, from the University of Mumbai states: "The Maratha claim to belong to the ancient 96 Kshatriya families has no foundation in fact and may have been adopted after the Marathas became with Shivaji a power to be reckoned with".

Professor Cynthia Talbot from the University of Texas quotes a saying in Maharashtra, "when a Kunbi prospers he becomes Maratha".^[32]

The Kunbi origin has been one of the factors on the basis of which the head of Maharashtra State Backward Class Commission (MSBC), a Judge, M.G.Gaikwad, and some others in 2018, stated that Maratha associations have submitted proofs and petitions to be included in the Other Backward Class.^[33]

Internal diaspora

The empire also resulted in the voluntary relocation of substantial numbers of Maratha and other Marathi-speaking people outside Maharashtra, and across a big part of India. Today several small but significant communities descended from these emigrants live in the north, south and west of India. These descendant communities tend often to speak the local languages, although many also speak Marathi in addition. Notable Maratha families outside Maharashtra include Bhonsle of Tanjore^[34], Scindia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda, Holkar of Indore, Puar of Dewas and Dhar, Ghorpade of Mudhol.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}

Comparative Cultural Issues, Literacy and Women's issues

Literacy

In 17th century Maharashtra, Brahmins, CKPs and Saraswats were the only communities that had a system of higher education. Education of all other castes and communities was very limited and consisted of listening to stories from religious texts like the Puranas or to Kirtans.^[35]

Gail Omvedt concludes that during the British era, the overall literacy of Brahmins and CKPs was overwhelmingly high as compared to the literacy of the maratha and Kunbi communities where it was strikingly low. The artisan castes were intermediate in terms of literacy. For all castes, men were more literate than the women from that caste(respectively). Female literacy as well as English literacy showed the same pattern among castes.^[39]{{efn|Omvedt does add a proviso saying that :There is difficulty in using such Census data, particularly because the various categories tended to be defined in different ways in different years, and different criteria were used in different provinces for classifying the population. Nonetheless, the overall trend is clear}}

Women's issues

Dowry Issues

Despite being a politically dominant caste, the Marathas have been unable to uproot the social evils of Dowry (Dowry refers to the durable goods, cash, and real or movable property that the bride's family gives to the bridegroom, his parents, or his relatives as a condition of the marriage.^[40]). 80% of the maratha community are farmers and there have been cases where the maratha farmers had to sell their lands just to get their daughters married. Data compiled by the Maratha Kranti Morcha members showed that the expenditure incurred by an average low income and poor Maratha family has doubled in the last 10 years when it comes to dowry. A member said (in 2018), "The dowry amount ranges from Rs 7 lakh to Rs 50 lakh, depending on the profession of the groom. The lower-middle class Marathas too often have to bear an expenditure of Rs 7 lakh to Rs 10 lakh for a daughter’s wedding. Even in the remote villages, a small and marginal farmer spends Rs 2 lakh to Rs 3.5 lakh on a daughter’s wedding.” Some caste members tried to use the Morcha to address the issue of Dowry but they did not get a positive response. Dowry has now attained a status symbol in the community and that is part of the issue.^[41]

Widows

Dr.Neela Dabir conducted her research on widows in Maharashtra by dividing them into three groups. First group consisted of the women belonging to Saraswat, CKP and Brahmin communities. The second group consisted of women from the Maratha caste and the third group was all others. She concluded that the Brahmins, CKPs and Saraswats who had similar "family norms" of following the higher caste Hindu rituals and traditions, discouraged widow remarriage. Although the marathas were politically dominant in the 20th century, they did not prohibit widow remarriage due to their ritualistic norms. The widows from the three castes (Saraswat,CKP, Brahmin) had to join Ashrams in large proportions whereas the widows from Maratha and other Hindu castes did not generally face such distress in their life in the 20th century.^[42]

Festivals and Gods

Rosalind O'Hanlon, Professor at the University of Oxford stated that the Hindu God Mhasoba is traditionally very popular in the Maratha caste. She quotes about the devotion of the Marathas in the 19th century to Mhasoba as follows:{{quote|You will not find a single family among the Marathas who do not set up in the grounds around their village some stone or other in the name of Mhasoba, smear it with red lead, and offer incense to it; who without taking Mhasoba's name will not put his hand to the seed-box of the plough, will not put the harrow to the field, and will not put the measure to the heap of threshed corn on the threshing floor.^[43]^[44]}}

The other Hindu Gods popular in the Maratha community are Khandoba and the Goddess Bhavani of Tuljapur.^[46]

Maratha leaders said that “Chhatrapati Shivaji is worshiped by the Maratha community, while different sections of society hold him in high esteem”. "Shivaji Jayanti" (his birthday) is celebrated with folk dances, songs, plays and Puja. There was some controversy over the date but it is now celebrated on February 19th. Earlier, the regional Marathi political parties - Shiv Sena as well as the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena were celebrating it as per the Tithi according to the Hindu Calendar ("Falgun Vadya Tritiya" - third day of the month of Falgun), whereas the State Government was celebrating it as per the Gregorian Calendar.^[47]^[48]^[49]

Varna status

The varna of the Maratha was a contested issue, with arguments for their being of the Kshatriya(warrior) varna, and others for their being of Shudra origins. This issue was the subject of antagonism between the Brahmins and Marathas, dating back to the time of Pratap Singh, but by the late 19th century moderate Brahmins were keen to ally with the influential Marathas of Bombay in the interests of Indian independence from Britain. These Brahmins supported the Maratha claim to Kshatriya status, but their success in this political alliance was sporadic and fell apart entirely following independence in 1947.^[50]

As late as the turn of 20th century, the Brahmin priests of Shahu, the Maratha ruler of Kolhapur refused to use Vedic mantras and would not take a bath before chanting, on the grounds that even the leading Marathas such as Shahu and his family belonged to the Shudra varna. This opinion about the Shudra varna was supported by Brahmin Councils in Maharashtra and they stuck to their opinion even when they (the Brahmins) were threatened with the loss of land and property. This led to Shahu supporting Satyashodhak Samaj as well as campaigning for the rights of the Maratha community.^[51]^[52] He soon became the leader of the non-Brahmin movement and united the Marathas under his banner.^[53]^[54]

In the 21st century, the Government of Maharashtra cited historical incidents for the claim of Shudra status of prominent Maratha families to form a case for reservation for the Marathas in the state.^[55] . Additionally, a report by an independent commission in November 2018 concluded that the Maratha caste is educationally, socially and economically a backward community.^[56]^[57]

Inter-caste issues

Anti-Marwadi Deccan riots of 1875

Claude Markovits, director of center of Indian and South-Asian studies, writes, that in 1875, in places such as Pune and Ahmednagar, Marwadi moneylenders became victims of coordinated attacks by the "local peasantry of the Maratha caste". Historian, David Ludlen states that the motivation for the violence was destroying the debt agreements that the moneylenders held over the Maratha farmers. These riots were known as the "Deccan riots".^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]

Anti-Brahmin Violence

Following the assassination of Gandhi in 1948 by Nathuram Godse, a Chitpawan Brahmin from Pune, other Brahmins in Maharashtra became targets of violence, mostly from elements from the Maratha caste.^[63]^[64] Later, in Sangli, Jains and Lingayats joined the marathas in their attacks against the Brahmins. Thousands of offices and homes were also set on fire. Molestation incidents were also reported during these attacks. On the first day alone, the number of deaths in Bombay were 15, and 50 in Pune.^[65]

One scholar has observed, "It will be too much to believe that the riots took place because of the intense love of Gandhiji on the part of the Marathas. Godse became a very convenient hate symbol to damn the Brahmins and burn their properties."

Donald Rosenthal opines that the motivation for the violence was the historic discrimination and humiliation that the Maratha community faced due to their caste status. He writes, "Even today, local Brahmins claim that the Marathas organized the riots to take political advantage of the situation".^[62]^[63]

In Satara alone, the official reports show that about 1000 houses were burnt in about 300 villages. There were "cruel, cold-blooded killings" as well - for example, one family whose last name happened to be 'Godse' had three of its male members killed. Brahmins suffered from serious physical violence as well as economic violence in the form of looting.^[64]

Maureen Patterson concludes that the greatest violence took place not in the cities of Mumbai, Pune and Nagpur - but in Satara, Kolhapur and Belgaum. Destruction was extensive in Kolhapur. Shahu of Kolhapur had actively collaborated with the British against the Indian freedom struggle that was identified with Chitpawans such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Shahu was also actively involved in the anti-Brahmin movement as well. In Sangli, the Jains and the Lingayats joined the Marathas in the attacks against the Brahmins. Here, specifically, the factories owned by the Chitpawan Brahmins were destroyed. This event led to the hasty integration of the Patwardhan states into the Bombay Province by March 1948.^[65]

Worli BDD Chawl violence

The BDD Chawl in the Worli inner suburb of Mumbai is a complex of buildings which were built in 1920s to house workers employed by the textile mills.

In the 1970s, at the height of the Dalit Panther movement, fights erupted between the Chawl’s dominant Maratha population and the Neo-Buddhists living in 20-odd buildings resulted in full-scale riots. Violence between the communities continued through the 1970s to the early 1990s.^[66]^[67]

Other incidents of caste related violence

Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

Ram Ganesh Gadkari Statue

In 2017, the statue of Ram Ganesh Gadkari, a noted playwright and poet who showed Sambhaji Maharaj in a poor light in his 1919 play 'Rajsanyas', was uprooted and thrown in the river by Sambhaji Brigade. The Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu(CKP), the community to which Gadkari belonged later organized a meeting to protest this incident at the "Ram Ganesh Gadkari Rangayatan"(a theater named after Gadkari) in Thane.^[71] Indian National Congress leader Nitesh Rane later rewarded the vandals and made inflammatory remarks claiming that he had announced a reward earlier in 2016 for removing the bust, and was proud of the act carried out by the accused.^[72]

Violence related to inclusion in the Other Backward Caste(OBC)

In 2018, several incidents of violence were reported due to agitation over the delay of the inclusion of the Maratha caste in the Other Backward Class category. The agitation was started by the Maratha Kranti Morcha. In June 2018, the Marathas threatened violent protests if their demands were not met. In July, Maratha protests turned violent as the protesters attacked police and torched police vehicles. Several incidents, including some deaths, were reported in other locations as well - several police were injured by the mobs, public property was damaged and private cars were torched. In Navi Mumbai itself, hundreds of vehicles were torched and buses were set on fire in cities such as Mumbai and Pune.^[73]^[74]^[75]^[76]^[77]

Some Marathas have also committed suicide, citing lack of inclusion in the OBC quota.^[78]^[79]

Other inter caste issues

Medha Khole Incident

In a widely publicized 2017 incident, a Brahmin scientist by the name of Medha Vinayak Khole(Deputy Director-General for the weather forecasting section) filed a police complaint against her Maratha domestic worker, Nirmala Yadav, for hiding her caste and “violating ritual purity and sanctity". Khole even insulted the latter's Gods Khandoba and Mhasoba - a Hindu God worshiped by the pastoral communities of western India and very popular in the Maratha community. Yadav alleged that "she [Khole] discovered I was a Maratha and not a Brahmin. Following this, she barged into my house and began assaulting me, while stating that our God was of the streets while theirs was in the heaven". The "Akhil Bhartiya Bramhan Mahasangh" initially came out in support of Khole. However, there were widespread protests not just by Maratha caste organizations but also by non-caste organizations like Domestic Workers Unions and Women's organizations and Khole was widely criticized.^[43]^[80]^[81]^[45]^[82]

Political participation

The 1919 Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms of the British colonial government called for caste based representation in legislative council. In anticipation a Maratha league party was formed. The league and other groups came together to form the non-Brahmins party in the Marathi speaking areas in the early 1920s under the leadership of Maratha leaders Keshavrao Jedhe and Baburao Javalkar. Their early goals in that period were capturing the Ganpati and Shivaji festivals from Brahmin domination.^[83] They combined nationalism with anti-casteism as the party's aims.^[84] Later on in the 1930s, Jedhe merged the non-Brahmin party with the Congress party and changed the Congress party in the Maharashtra region from an upper-caste dominated body to a more broadly based but Maratha-dominated party.^[85] Apart from Jedhe, most Congress leaders from the Maratha /Kunbi community remained aloof from the Samyukta Maharashtra campaign of the 1950s. However, they have dominated the state politics of Maharashtra since its inception in 1960.^[50]

The INC was the preferred party of the Maratha/Kunbi community in the early days of Maharashtra and the party was long without a major challenger, and enjoyed overwhelming support from the Maratha dominated sugar co-operatives and thousands of other cooperative organizations involved in the rural agricultural economy of the state such as marketing of dairy and vegetable produce, credit unions etc.^[86]^[87] The domination by Marathas of the cooperative institutions and with it the rural economic power allowed the community to control politics from the village level up to the Assembly and Lok Sabha seats.^[88]^[89] Since the 1980s, this group has also been active in setting up private educational institutions.^[90]^[91]^[92] Major past political figures of Congress party from Maharashtra such as Keshavrao Jedhe, Yashwantrao Chavan,^[89] Shankarrao Chavan^[93] and Vilasrao Deshmukh^[94] have been from this group.

The state has had many Maratha government ministers and officials, as well as in local municipal councils, and panchayats. Marathas comprise around 32 per cent of the state population.^[96]^[97] 10 out of 16 chief ministers of Maharashtra hailed from the Maratha community as of 2012.^[98]

The rise of the Hindu Nationalist Shiv Sena and Bharatiya Janata Party in recent years have not dented Maratha representation in Maharashtra Legislative assembly.^[88]

Military service

Marathas were declared a non-martial race by Lord Roberts but later added back to the list in the early twentieth century although it was unclear whether this categorization referred to the Maratha caste or a subset of some Marathi castes.^[101]^[102] The British, despite praising the Military prowess of the Marathas, considered them inferior to Sikhs and Gurkhas in terms of other masculine traits due to prevailing Christian notions of manliness in battlefield as well as in practices. They disapproved of Maratha raiding tactics at war.^[103] However, racial theories have been discredited.^[104]

Lord Roberts, commander-in-chief of the Indian Army 1885–1893, who came up with the "martial race" theory, stated that in order to improve the quality of the army, there was a need to use "more warlike and hardy races" instead of the current sepoys from Bengal, the Tamils, Telugus and the Marathas. Based on this theory, Gurkhas and Sikhs were recruited by the British army and they were "construed as marital races" in preference to other races in India.^[105] Historian Sikata Banerjee notes a dissonance in British military opinions of the Maratha, wherein the British portrayed them as both "formidable opponents" and yet not "properly qualified" for fighting in the western manner, criticising the Maratha guerrilla tactics as an improper way of war. Banerjee cites an 1859 statement as emblematic of this disparity: {{quote|There is something noble in the carriage of an ordinary Rajput, and something vulgar in that of the most distinguished Mahratta. The Rajput is the most worthy antagonist, the Mahratta the most formidable enemy.^[106]}}

The Maratha Light Infantry regiment is one of the "oldest and most renowned" regiments of the Indian Army.^[107] Its First Battalion, also known as the Jangi Paltan ("Warrior Platoon"),^[108] traces its origins to 1768 as part of the Bombay Sepoys.

The battle cry of Maratha Light Infantry is Bol Shri Chattrapati Shivaji Maharaj ki Jai! ("Hail Victory to Emperor Shivaji!") in tribute to the Maratha sovereign and their motto is Shatrujeet (victory over enemy).^[109]

See also

Footnotes

1. ^W. J. Johnson (ed.), "Marāṭhā", A Dictionary of Hinduism (Oxford, 2009): "The name of a dominant caste in western India (Maharashtra), which was united into an independent Marāṭhā kingdom (or empire) by Śivajī in 1674. His successors, who eventually splintered into a confederacy, resisted first the Mughals and then the British. After a prolonged series of wars, they were finally defeated in 1818."
2. ^"The name of the ‘caste-cluster of agriculturalists-turned-warriors’ inhabiting the north-west Dakhan, Mahārās̲h̲tra ‘the great country’, a term which is extended to all Marāt́hī speakers": {{EI2|author=P. Hardy|title=Marāt́hās|volume=6}}
3. ^¹{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maratha |title=Maratha (people) |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=28 August 2018}}: "a major people of India, famed in history as yeoman warriors and champions of Hinduism".
4. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07qGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Grass-Roots Democracy in India and China: The Right To Participate|editors=Manoranjan Mohanty, George Mathew, Richard Baum, Rong Ma|author=Rajendra Vora|publisher=sage publications|year=2007|quote=The Marathas, a middle-peasantry caste accounting for around 30 percent of the total population of the state, dominate the power structure in Maharashtra. In no other state of India do we find a caste as large as the Marathas. In the past years, scholars have turned their attention to the rural society of Maharashtra in which they thought the roots of this domination lay.}}
5. ^{{cite book|title=Nineteenth Century History of Maharashtra: 1818-1857|page=122|url=https://www.google.com/search?tbm=bks&q=%22Marathas+and+kunbis+formed+the+bulk+of+the+Maharashtrian+society+and%2C+owing+to+their+numerical+strength%2C+held+a+dominating+position+in+the+old+village+organisation%22|author=B. R. Sunthankar|quote=The peasant castes of Marathas and kunbis formed the bulk of the Maharashtrian society and, owing to their numerical strength, held a dominating position in the old village organisation."}}
6. ^{{cite book |title= Why Wars Happen |author= Jeremy Black |page=111 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdlUhsjJPDoC&pg=PA111#v=onepage&q&f=false |year=2005 |publisher= Reaktion Books}}
7. ^{{cite book|title=Politics in Modern Maharashtra|quote=The second caste conflict which is of political significance is that of the Marathas and the Mahars. Marathas are dominant in rural areas and mainly constitute the landed peasantry.|author=V. M. Sirsikar|year=1995|page=64|publisher=Orient Longman}}
8. ^{{cite news |date= September 9, 2018 |title=Dowry, child marriage issues plague Maratha and Dhangar communities |url= https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/dowry-child-marriage-issues-plague-maratha-and-dhangar-communities-5346895/ }}
9. ^{{cite book |title=The Concept of Race in South Asia |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Delhi |year=1995 |editor-first=Peter |editor-last=Robb |first=Crispin |last=Bates |chapter= Race, Caste and Tribe in Central India: the early origins of Indian anthropometry |isbn= 978-0-19-563767-0 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNkQgAACAAJ |pages=240–242 |accessdate= 2011-12-09}}
10. ^{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8PJFLeURhsC&pg=PA34 |title=The Culture of India |editor=Kathleen Kuiper |publisher=Rosen |year=2010 |isbn=9781615301492 |page=34 }}
11. ^{{cite book|author=Louis Dumont|title=Homo hierarchicus: the caste system and its implications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsOtRGdvIigC&pg=PA121|accessdate=13 May 2011|year=1980|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226169637|page=121 }}
12. ^{{cite book|first=Rosalind |last=O'Hanlon|title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC&pg=PA17|accessdate=13 May 2011|year=2002|location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-52152-308-0|page=17}}
13. ^{{cite book |title=The Marathas 1600–1818 |series=The New Cambridge History of India |first=Stewart N. |last=Gordon |publisher=Cambridge University Press |authorlink=Stewart N. Gordon |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-52126-883-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA35 |page=35 |quote=Second, we have that Marathas regularly served in the armies of the Muslim Deccan kingdoms.}}
14. ^{{cite journal |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire|first=M. N. |last=Pearson |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |date=February 1976 |pages=221–235 |publisher=Association for Asian Studies |jstor=2053980 |doi=10.2307/2053980}}
15. ^Mehta, J. L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&lpg=PA204 Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707–1813]
16. ^{{cite book|author=Alexander Mikaberidze|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia: A Historical Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&pg=PA43|accessdate=15 September 2013|date=31 July 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-337-8|pages=43–}}
17. ^{{cite book |last=Chhabra |first=G.S. |year=2005 |origyear=1971 |title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India |publisher=Lotus Press |isbn=81-89093-06-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkDi6rVbckoC}}
18. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA217&dq=maratha+population+in+maharashtra&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjes9iP5N7ZAhUK72MKHdO8DGAQ6AEIMDAC#v=onepage&q=maratha%20population%20in%20maharashtra&f=false|page=216,217|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies (Exploring the Political in South Asia)|editor1=Christophe Jaffrelot|editor2=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge India|year=2009|quote=The upper castes, composed mainly of Brahmins, constitute around 4 per cent of the total population. While Brahmins are found in all the districts of the state, the Saraswats and Prabhus, the two other literary castes of this category, are significant number only in Mumbai city.}}
19. ^{{cite news|title=Brahmins too demand for reservations in Maharashtra|url=https://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-brahmins-too-demand-for-reservations-in-maharashtra-2004800|accessdate=24 July 2014|author=Dhaval Kulkarni|publisher=Daily News and Analysis}}
20. ^{{cite news|title=Bhujbal has a hush-hush meet with Brahmin leader|url=https://punemirror.indiatimes.com/pune/cover-story/bhujbal-has-a-hush-hush-meet-with-brahmin-leader/articleshow/32560839.cms|publisher=India Times|author=Nitin Brahme|accessdate=7 July 2009}}
21. ^{{cite web|title=Distribution Of Brahmin Population|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/distribution-of-brahmin-population/220442|accessdate=16 June 2003|publisher=Outlook India}}
22. ^{{cite book | title =Writing Caste/Writing Gender: Narrating Dalit Women's Testimonies | page=28|publisher= Zubaan Books|year= 2013 |author= Sharmila Rege|quote= The traditional caste hierarchy was headed by the brahmin castes-the deshasthas, chitpawans, karhades saraswats and the chandraseniya kayastha prabhus.}}
23. ^{{cite journal | title = The American Economic Review - Volume 96, Issues 3-4 |page = 1228 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RC6yAAAAIAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=pathare|publisher = Nashville, Tenn. American Economic Association | year=2006 |quote= High castes include all the Brahmin jatis, as well as a few other elite jatis (CKP and Pathare Prabhus).Low castes include formerly untouchable and backward castes (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Castes, as defined by the government of India). Medium castes are drawn mostly from the cultivator jatis, such as the Marathas and the Kunbis, as well as other traditional vocations that were not considered to be ritually impure.}}
24. ^{{cite book | title=Communal Identity in India: Its Construction and Articulation in the Twentieth Century | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtztAAAAIAAJ&dq=chandraseniya |author= Bidyut Chakrabarty |year= 2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote= Of the six groups, four are Brahmins; one is high non-brahmin caste, Chandraseniya Kayashth Prabhu (CKP), ranking next only to the Brahmins; and the other is a cultivating caste, Maratha (MK), belonging to the middle level of the hierarchy.}}
25. ^{{cite book | title= Rajarshi Shahu: a model ruler | publisher=kirti prakashan|page=20|year=1994|author = V. B. Ghuge| quote= In the Hindu social hierarchy the privileged classes were Brahmins, CKP's and others. Similarly other elite classes were Parsis and Europeans.}}
26. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGd2huLXEVYC&pg=PA200#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives, Volume 1|author=Richard M. Eaton|publisher=Cambridge university press|pages=191,200}}
27. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA16#v=onepage&q&f=false|author=Stewart Gordon|title=The Marathas 1600-1818|publisher=cambridge university press|pages=15,16}}
28. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age|last=Bayly|first=Susan|date=2001-02-22|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=|isbn=9780521798426|location=|page=57|language=en}}
29. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OM44DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA45#v=onepage&q&f=false|quote=For Maharashtra, Karve(1968) has reported that the line between Marathas and Kunbis is thin and sometimes difficult to ascertain|title=The Political Economy of Land Acquisition in India: How a Village Stops Being One|author=Dhanmanjiri Sathe|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2017}}
30. ^{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.215170|title=Anthropometric measurements of the Marathas|publisher=Deccan College Postgraduate Research Institute|page=14|author=Irawati Karmarkar Karve|year=1948|quote=page 14:These figures as they stand are obviously wrong. The Marathas had not doubled their numbers between 1901 and 1911 nor were the Kunbis reduced by almost three- fourths. Either the recorders had made wrong entries or what is more probable, "Kunbi" as a caste-category was no longer acceptable to cultivators who must have given up their old appellation, Kunbi, and taken up the caste name, Maratha. In 1921 under the common heading Maratha and Kunbi, the figure 48,86,484 is given and a note added that this head includes Marathas, Cabit, Kunbi and Khandesh Kunbis. (Vol. VIII, Bombay, Part I, pages 185-189.) ...page13: The agricultural community of the Maratha country is made up of Kunbis, Marathas and Malis. The first two are dry farmers depending solely on the monsoon rains for their crop, while the Malis work on irrigated lands working their fields all the year round on well-water or canals and growing fruit, vegetables, sugarcane and some varieties of cereals}}
31. ^{{cite book|title=Totemism in India|page=191|author=John Vincent Ferreira|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=191:Together with the Marathas, the Maratha Kunbi belonged originally, says Enthoven, to the same caste; and both their exogamous kuls and exogamous devaks are identical with those of the Marathas. Enthoven opines that the totemic nature of their devak system suggests that they are largely of a non-Aryan origin.page202:The Kunbi cultivators are also Marathas but of a somewhat inferior social standing. The Maratha claim to belong to the ancient 96 Kshatriya families has no foundation in fact and may have been adopted after the Marathas became with Shivaji a power to be reckoned with.|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=%22The+Maratha+claim+to+belong+to+the+ancient+96+Kshatriya+families%22&source=lnms&tbm=bks&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiquMaTgvncAhXDylQKHQNZAFsQ_AUIECgB&biw=1366&bih=662}}
32. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pfAKljlCJq0C&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra|author=Cynthia Talbot|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001}}
33. ^{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolhapur/commission-gets-over-1l-petitions-proof-for-maratha-reservation/articleshow/64263505.cms|title=Commission gets over 1L petitions, proof for Maratha reservation|date=21 May 2018}}
34. ^https://www.dnaindia.com/analysis/column-christian-schwartz-the-raj-guru-of-thanjavur-2669679
35. ^{{cite journal |last=Kantak |first=M. R.|title=The Political Role of Different Hindu Castes and Communities in Maharashtra in the Foundation of the Shivaji's Swarajya |journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute |date=1978 |volume=38 |issue=1 |page=44 |jstor=42931051}}
36. ^{{cite web|url=http://history.msu.edu/people/faculty/gordon-stewart/|title=MSU History Department|first=Michigan State|last=University|website=history.msu.edu|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
37. ^{{cite book|title=The New Cambridge History of India, Volume 2, Part 4: The Marathas 1600-1818 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=27|author=Steward Gordon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1993|quote=The Ghorpade family was Maratha and almost certainly illiterate. Record keepers were Brahmin, literate families.}}
38. ^{{cite book|title=People of India - Volume VI, Part 2|page=1436|quote=For example, the families having Bhosale and Ghorpade as surnames are believed to belong to the same clan-stock namely the Bhosale|author=Kumar Suresh Singh|publisher=Anthropological Survey of India|year=2004}}
39. ^{{cite journal |last=Omvedt |first=Gail|title=Development of the Maharashtrian Class Structure, 1818 to 1931|journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=8 |issue=31/33 |pages=1418–1419 |date=August 1973|quote=page 1426:There is difficulty in using such Census data, particularly because the various categories tended to be defined in different ways in different years, and different criteria were used in different provinces for classifying the population. Nonetheless, the overall trend is clear...page 1416: Table 1: Literacy of selected castes(male and female). literacy caste(1921,1931): CKP(57.3%,64.4%); Chitpawan(40.9%,55.2%); Deshastha(40.3%,55.8%);sonar(22%,23.1%);shimpi(tailor)(21.2%,29.6%);koshti(weaver)(11.0%,17.5%);Maratha in Bombay(?, 11.3%), sutar(4.0%,7.5%), teli(oil presser): (3.8%,7.5%), Maratha in ratnagiri(2.9%,?), dhobi(washerman) (2.9%, 5.7%); Mali(2.3%,8.7%);Mahar(1.2%,2.9%); dhangar(shepherd) (1.2%,2.7%); chambhar(1.1%, 2.0%); kumbhar(1.1%,2.0%), Mang(0.5%,1.6%), Kunbi(0.6%,?),Bania-Berar(27.9%, 46.6%), Rajput-Berar(8.7%,11.4%);page 1419:Male literacy rates were much higher than the male and female together, but show the same pattern, as does the literacy in English. Not only were the Brahmans and CKPs overwhelmingly dominant, but maratha kunbi figures were amazingly low, especially for bombay province. Even allowing for the effects of sampling differences, the low rates for the marathas kunbis are striking, and it is noteworthy that many artisan castes were more literate. This also tended to be true in the central provinces-Berar.}}
40. ^{{Cite book| title = Dowry Deaths and Access to Justice in Kali's Yug: Empowerment, Law and Dowry Deaths| author= Jethmalani & P.K. Dey| year = 1995| pages = 36, 38}}
41. ^{{cite news|date=September 9, 2018|title=Dowry, child marriage issues plague Maratha and Dhangar communities|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/dowry-child-marriage-issues-plague-maratha-and-dhangar-communities-5346895/}}
42. ^{{cite book|title=women in distress|author=Dr.Neela Dabir|pages=97, 99|publisher=Rawat Publishers|year=2000}}
43. ^¹{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kMrsTj1NeYC&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=155|title=Caste, Conflict and Ideology: Mahatma Jotirao Phule and Low Caste Protest in Nineteenth-Century Western India (Cambridge South Asian Studies)|author= Rosalind 'O' Hanlon| year=2002|publisher= Cambridge University Press}}
44. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.stx.ox.ac.uk/people/fellow/professor-rosalind-ohanlon|title=Professor Rosalind O'Hanlon|date=6 August 2012|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
45. ^¹{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DF_af8_547EC&pg=PT86#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Sacred Animals of India|year=2014|publisher=Penguin}}
46. ^{{cite book|title=Maratha History Seminar, May 28-31, 1970: papers|page=123|author=Appasaheb Ganapatrao Pawar|publisher=Shivaji University|year=1971|quote=Referring to the chief deities of the Marathas, Khandoba and Bhawani, Edwards quotes Brahma Purana, according to which Shiva assumed the form of Malhari Martand, another name of Khandoba, while Bhawani was the consort of Shiva}}
47. ^{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/thane/processions-folk-dances-mark-shivaji-jayanti-in-thane/articleshow/62988476.cms|title=Processions, folk dances mark Shivaji Jayanti in Thane - Times of India|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
48. ^{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/maratha-rally-seeks-to-end-row-over-shiv-jayanti-date-lets-celebrate-it-on-february-19-4789881/|title=Maratha rally seeks to end row over Shiv Jayanti date: ‘Let’s celebrate it on February 19’|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
49. ^http://www.asianage.com/metros/mumbai/170518/celebrate-shivaji-jayanti-as-per-tithi-says-mns-chief.html
50. ^¹{{cite book |first=Donald V. |last=Kurtz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0X5DquN8LkIC&pg=PA63 |title=Contradictions and Conflict: A Dialectical Political Anthropology of a University in Western India |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |year=1994 |isbn=978-9-00409-828-2 |page=63}}
51. ^{{cite book |title=Non-Brahmin Movement in Southern India, 1873-1949 |author= Kashinath Kavlekar |page=63| year=1979}}
52. ^{{cite book |title=The Indian National Congress and the political economy of India, 1885-1985 |author= Mike Shepperdson, Colin Simmons |page=109| year=1988}}
53. ^{{cite web | title=Pune’s endless identity wars | website=Indian Express | url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/pune-s-endless-identity-wars/734020/ | accessdate=1 August 2015}}
54. ^{{cite book|title=Rajarshi Shahu Chhatrapati Papers: 1900-1905 A.D.: Vedokta controversy|publisher=Shahu Research Institute, 1985 - Kolhapur (Princely State)|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Rajarshi_Shahu_Chhatrapati_Papers_1900_1.html?id=mR4_AQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y}}
55. ^{{cite news| title = 'Maharashtra to justify quota with historical evidence' |year= 2014 | url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-maratha-quota-maharashtra-to-justify-quota-with-historical-evidence-1999962}}
56. ^https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/marathas-maharashtra-backward-class-reservation-1388767-2018-11-15
57. ^https://m.timesofindia.com/city/mumbai/marathas-socially-and-economically-backward-panel/articleshow/66627715.cms
58. ^{{cite book|title=A History of Modern India, 1480-1950| page= 359|author=Claude Markovits|editor=Claude Markovits|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2OKvG5wbaAC&pg=PA359|quote=In 1875, in Maharashtra, in the regions of Poona and Ahmadnagar, moneylenders (sowcars), most often Marwaris, became the object of coordinated attacks by the local peasantry of the Maratha caste: this episode, known as the Deccan riots...|publisher=Anthem Press|year=2004}}
59. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efp9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA257#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Indian Nationalism and the Early Congress|author=John R. McLane|page=257}}
60. ^{{cite book|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=3GwCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA200&lpg=PA200#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=An Agrarian History of South Asia|author=David Ludlen}}
61. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BHNECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152|title=Merchant Communities in Asia, 1600–1980|author=Madeleine Zelin}}
62. ^¹{{cite book|title=The Untold Vajpayee: Politician and Paradox|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w4LZDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT39|page=39|author= Ullekh N P|publisher=Random House India|year=2018}}
63. ^¹{{cite book|title=State Intervention and Popular Response: Western India in the Nineteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7f0JEWk6HMC&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor1=Mariam Dossal|editor2=Ruby Malon|page=11}}
64. ^{{cite book|publisher=University of Toronto, Centre for South Asian Studies|title=City, countryside and society in Maharashtra|page=40|quote=There is no doubt now since about 1000 houses were officially reported to have burnt in some 300 villages spread across all thirteen talukas of the District and Aundh State. There are reports of "cruel, cold-blooded killing" — one family named Godse was said to have lost three male members — and there were other serious physical attacks on Brahmans. In general, the victims of arson and looting were predominantly Brahman...|year=1988}}
65. ^¹{{cite book| title= Gandhi and Godse:A review and Critique|author=Koenraad Elst|year= 2001|pages=12, 13, 14|quote=(pg 13,14)Destruction was even larger in kolhapur...(pg14)Shahu Maharaj had actively collaborated with the British against the freedom movement, which was locally identified with Chitpawan Brahmins like B.G.Tilak...(pg14) The biggest violence took place in the seven Patwardhan (Chitpawan) princely states such as Sangli, where the remarkably advanced factories owned by Chitpawans were largely destroyed/ Here, Jains and Lingayats joined the Marathas in the attacks. The events hastened the integration of Patwardhan states (by march 1948) into the Bombay province, an integration opposed by the Brahmins - fearing Maratha predominance in the integrated province.}}
66. ^{{cite news |last1=Rao |first1=Srinath |title=With state govt’s redevelopment plans for Mumbai’s BDD chawls, is it time to let go of a familiar way of life? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/lifestyle/life-style/time-to-let-go-worli-bbd-chawl-4676690 |accessdate=3 August 2018 |publisher=The Indian Express |date=May 28, 2017}}
67. ^Sharma, R. N., & Yesudian, C. A. (1983). Group violence in a neighbourhood: A case study of Worli B.D.D. Chawls in Bombay. Indian Journal of Social Work, 43(4), 419-429.
68. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah8qnXeeHKAC&pg=PA70#v=onepage&q&f=false|page=70|title=Storytellers @work|publisher=katha|year=2004|isbn=8189020013}}
69. ^{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Protect-all-research-houses-Bori/articleshow/408950.cms|title=Protect all research houses: Bori - Times of India|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
70. ^'Maratha' activists vandalise Bhandarkar Institute Times of India - January 6, 2004
71. ^{{cite news|date=2017-01-07|url=https://scroll.in/article/826108/explainer-the-politics-behind-the-vandalism-of-a-legendary-marathi-playwrights-statue-in-pune|title=Maratha pride (and votes): Why the statue of a legendary Marathi playwright was vandalised in Pune}}
72. ^{{cite news|url=http://punemirror.indiatimes.com/pune/civic/cong-mla-rane-rewards-vandals/articleshow/56606356.cms|title=Cong MLA Rane rewards vandals}}
73. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-maratha-protests-2-fire-brigade-vehicles-torched-cops-attacked-in-aurangabad-as-maharashtra-bandh-turns-violent-2641069|title=Maratha protests: 2 fire brigade vehicles torched, cops attacked in Aurangabad as Maharashtra bandh turns violent|date=24 July 2018|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
74. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/maratha-agitation-residents-pay-price-as-protesters-damage-160-private-vehicles-in-navi-mumbai/story-BVI8lnwseybgxw6KBAqijN.html|title=Maratha agitation: Residents pay price, as protesters damage 160 private vehicles in Navi Mumbai|date=27 July 2018|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
75. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/marathas-threaten-violent-protest-for-reservation-as-maharashtra-govt-seeks-more-time-1272948-2018-06-29|title=Marathas threaten violent protest for reservation as Maharashtra govt seeks more time|website=India Today|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
76. ^{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/maratha-reservation-protest-live-updates-mumbai-bandh-maharashtra-devendra-fadnavis-obc-status-5274626/|title=Maharashtra Bandh highlights: Ashok Chavan slams govt, says, ‘Till when you’ll deceive people in name of discussions’|date=25 July 2018|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
77. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.news18.com/news/india/40-buses-torched-stones-pelted-in-pune-as-maratha-quota-fire-burns-again-1828333.html|title=40 Buses Torched, Stones Pelted in Pune as Maratha Quota Fire Burns Again|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
78. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/india/man-ends-life-suicide-note-mentions-debt-maratha-quota-1502672517.html|title=Man ends life, 'suicide note' mentions debt, Maratha quota|date=12 August 2018|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
79. ^{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/four-maratha-suicides-same-story-few-jobs-but-many-dreams-5305390/|title=Four Maratha suicides, same story: Few jobs but many dreams|date=14 August 2018|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018}}
80. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/imd-scientist-files-case-against-cook-for-posing-as-brahmin/article19644659.ece|title=IMD scientist files cheating case against cook for ‘posing’ as Brahmin|first=Shoumojit|last=Banerjee|date=8 September 2017|publisher=|accessdate=26 August 2018|via=www.thehindu.com}}
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83. ^{{cite book|last1=Hansen|first1=Thomas Blom|title=Wages of violence : naming and identity in postcolonial Bombay|date=2002|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J.|isbn=978-0691088402|page=33|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-y3iNt0djbQC&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q=pune&f=false|accessdate=10 January 2017}}
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85. ^{{cite journal|last1=Omvedt|first1=Gail|title=Non-Brahmans and Nationalists in Poona|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=1974|volume=9|issue=6/8|pages=201–219|jstor=4363419}}
86. ^{{cite book|last1=Brass|first1=Paul R.|title=The politics of India since independence|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[New Delhi]|isbn=978-0521543057|page=142|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=dtKe6XV8z7wC&oi=fnd&pg=PR10&dq=Indian+provincial+elections,+1937+suffrage&ots=DE0-4BEjtQ&sig=kxqukmmHK0rJNwX7JjwRHifKg8E#v=onepage&q=maharashtra%20sugar&f=false|accessdate=1 February 2017}}
87. ^{{cite book|last1=Mishra|first1=Sumita|title=Grassroot politics in India|date=2000|publisher=Mittal Publications|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788170997320|page=27|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9kQcBmKcOsC&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
88. ^¹{{cite book|last1=Vora|first1=Rajendra|editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Sanjay|editor2-last=Jaffrelot|editor2-first=Christophe|title=Rise of the plebeians? : the changing face of Indian legislative assemblies|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-0415460927|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=%22Bharatiya+Janata+Party%22+maharashtra+maratha+brahmin&ots=Nrcf4zUkNC&sig=I74KUfhPVZlpXm10LVN0bdXnFPM#v=snippet&q=maratha%20janata&f=false|chapter=Chapter 7 Maharashtra or Maratha Rashtra}}
89. ^¹{{cite book|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A.R. (Editor)|last2=Wagle|first2=N.K.(Editor)|last3=Sirsikar|first3=V.M. (Author)|title=State intervention and popular response : western India in the nineteenth century|date=1999|publisher=Popular Prakashan|location=Mumbai|isbn=81-7154-835-0|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=t7f0JEWk6HMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=congress+%22sugar+lobby%22+maharashtra&ots=MMaR7MXVuH&sig=1MnShXJi2hvUaPWQVtXEoXmfitY#v=onepage&q=%20%22sugar%20lobby%22%20&f=false}}
90. ^{{cite journal|last1=Dahiwale|first1=S. M.|title=Consolidation of Maratha Dominance in Maharashtra Economic and Political Weekly Vol. 30, No. 6 (Feb. 11, 1995), pp. 336-342 Published by:|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=1995|volume=30,|issue=6|pages=336–342|jstor=4402382}}
91. ^{{cite book|last1=Kurtz|first1=Donald V.|title=Contradictions and conflict : a dialectical political anthropology of a University in Western India|date=1994|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden [u.a.]|isbn=978-9004098282|page=50|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0X5DquN8LkIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=ckp+prabhu+marathi&ots=H-VPzoAxS3&sig=u9sW7UH6jOx3Egfg610030ki1Nc#v=onepage&q=city%20educational%20society&f=false}}
92. ^{{cite book|title=Language and society : steps towards an integrated theory|last1=Singh|first1=R.|last2=Lele|first2=J.K.|date=1989|publisher=E.J. Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004087897|pages=32–42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PLiAlGzLFQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=chitpavan&f=false}}
93. ^{{cite journal |last1=Baviskar |first1=B. S. |title=Cooperatives in Maharashtra: Challenges Ahead |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |date=2007 |volume=42 |issue=42 |pages=4217–4219 |jstor=40276570}}
94. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA225|page=225|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies (Exploring the Political in South Asia)|editor1=Christophe Jaffrelot|editor2=Sanjay Kumar|publisher=Routledge India|year=2009|quote=Vilasrao Deshmukh (from Congress), a Maratha from Marathwada}}
95. ^{{cite book|title=India′s 2009 Elections: Coalition Politics, Party Competition and Congress Continuity|publisher=SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd|editor1= Paul Wallace|editor2=Ramashray Roy|date=May 9, 2011|page=252|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZ6HAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA252#v=onepage&q&f=false|quote=...Sharad Pawar, the founder of the NCP and also described as the Maratha Strong Man, who has been...}}
96. ^{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9kQcBmKcOsC&pg=PA27 |page=27 |title=Grassroot Politics in India |first=Sumita |last=Mishra |publisher=Mittal Publications |location=New Delhi |year=2000 |isbn=9788170997320}}
97. ^{{cite book |title=New Farmers' Movements in India |editor-first=Tom |editor-last=Brass |first=D. N. |last=Dhanagare |publisher=Routledge/Frank Cass |location=Ilford |year=1995 |isbn=9780714646091 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L_JRM7CCrMUC&pg=PA80 |page=80 |chapter=The Class Character and Politics of the Farmers' Movement in Maharashtra during the 1980s}}
98. ^Economic and Political Weekly: January 2012 First Volume Pg 45
99. ^{{cite book|title=Caste, Class, and Capital: The Social and Political Origins of Economic Policy in India |author=Kanta Murali|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|pages=236-237|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RFLTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA236#v=onepage&q&f=false|quote=Shiv Sena's strength primarily came from Maratha support, which it drew away from the Congress}}
100. ^{{cite book|quote=The Shiv Sena is emerging as another Maratha party if we go by the number of Marathas elected on its ticket in the last four elections to the Vidhan Sabha. |pages=240,241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=78rfCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA240#v=onepage&q&f=false|editor1=Christophe Jaffrelot|editor2=Sanjay Kumar|author=Rajendra Vora|title=Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies}}
101. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=U5FdJnnDhSwC&pg=PA189 Creative Pasts: Historical Memory And Identity in Western India, 1700-1960] From book: "In the early twentieth century, the Marathas were identified as a "martial race" fit for the imperial army, and recruitment of Marathas increased after World War I."
102. ^{{cite web | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ&q=Maratha+non+martial+race&dq=Maratha+non+martial+race&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiioYXt7_vbAhUDL3wKHb3_DtsQ6AEISDAG| title=Battle honours of the Indian Army, 1757-1971 | publisher= Vision Books, 1993 | work= History | date=1993 | author=Vision Books | pages=111}}
103. ^{{cite web | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F165bWv7goQC&pg=PA28&dq=maratha+non+martial+race&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwid-Z-3wvzbAhXrHjQIHUTTDQEQ6AEILzAB#v=onepage&q=inferior&f=false| title= Make Me a Man!: Masculinity, Hinduism, and Nationalism in India| publisher= University of new York| work= History | date=2005 | author= S Banerjee | pages=32}}
104. ^{{cite book|title=Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia|editor1=Jacqueline Suthren Hirst|editor2=John Zavoss|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBOpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA280#v=onepage&q&f=false}}
105. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J4GqdfG0EU8C&pg=PA26 |page=26 |title=Gorkhaland Movement: A Study in Ethnic Separatism |first=Amiya K. |last=Samanta |publisher=APH Publishing |location=New Delhi |year=2000 |isbn=9788176481663 |accessdate=2012-10-03|quote=The first step towards improving the quality of the army was to substitute men of more warike and hardy races for the Hindustani sepoys of Bengal, the Tamils and Telugus of Madras and the so called Marathas of Bombay.}}
106. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F165bWv7goQC&pg=PA33 |page=33 |title=Make Me a Man!: Masculinity, Hinduism, and Nationalism in India |first=Sikata |last=Banerjee |publisher=SUNY Press |location=Albany, NY |year=2005 |isbn=9780791463673 |accessdate=2012-10-03}}
107. ^{{cite book|author=Frank Edwards|title=The Gaysh: A History of the Aden Protectorate Levies 1927–61 and the Federal Regular Army of South Arabia 1961–67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZux-2ZPoaIC&pg=PA86|accessdate=15 September 2013|year=2003|publisher=Helion & Company Limited|isbn=978-1-874622-96-3|pages=86–}}
108. ^{{cite book|author=Roger Perkins|title=Regiments: Regiments and Corps of the British Empire and Commonwealth, 1758–1993 : a Critical Bibliography of Their Published Histories|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xn4sAAAAYAAJ|accessdate=15 September 2013|year=1994|publisher=Roger Perkins|isbn=978-0-9506429-3-2}}
109. ^{{cite book|title=Indian Army: A Reference Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ziDfAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=Bol+Shri+Chattrapati+Shivaji+Maharaj+ki+Jai|year=2000|page=89|publisher=Reliance Publishing House/ Reliance Books|author=Gautam Sharma}}