| 词条 | Masada | ||||||||||
| 释义 |
| name = Masada | native_name = {{Hebrew|מצדה}} | alternate_name = | image = Israel-2013-Aerial 21-Masada.jpg | alt = | caption = Aerial view of Masada | map_type = Israel | map_alt = | map_size = 150 | relief = | coordinates = {{coord|31|18|56|N|35|21|14|E|display=inline,title}} | location = Southern District, Israel | region = Judea | type = Fortification | part_of = | length = | width = | area = | height = | builder = Alexander Jannaeus (?) Herod the Great | material = | built = 1st century BCE | abandoned = | epochs = | cultures = | dependency_of = | occupants = | event = Siege of Masada | excavations = 1963–1965 | archaeologists = Yigael Yadin | condition = | ownership = | management = | public_access = | notes = |child = yes |ID = 1040 |Criteria = Cultural: iii, iv, vi |Year = 2001 |Area = 276 ha |Buffer_zone = 28,965 ha }} Masada ({{lang-he-n|מצדה}} {{transl|he|metsada}}, "fortress")[1] is an ancient fortification in the Southern District of Israel situated on top of an isolated rock plateau, akin to a mesa. It is located on the eastern edge of the Judaean Desert, overlooking the Dead Sea {{convert|20|km|miles|abbr=on}} east of Arad. Herod the Great built two palaces for himself on the mountain and fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE. According to Josephus, the siege of Masada by Roman troops at the end of the First Jewish–Roman War ended in the mass suicide of 960 people, the Sicarii rebels and their families who were hiding there. Masada is one of Israel's most popular tourist attractions.[2] GeographyThe cliff of Masada is, geologically speaking, a horst.[3] As the plateau abruptly ends in cliffs steeply falling about {{convert|400|m|abbr=on}} to the east and about {{convert|90|m|abbr=on}} to the west, the natural approaches to the fortress are very difficult to navigate. The top of the mesa-like plateau is flat and rhomboid-shaped, about {{convert|550|m|abbr=on}} by {{convert|270|m|abbr=on}}. Herod built a {{convert|4|m|abbr=on}} high casemate wall around the plateau totalling {{convert|1300|m|abbr=on}} in length, reinforced by many towers. The fortress contained storehouses, barracks, an armory, a palace, and cisterns that were refilled by rainwater. Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates.{{Citation needed|date=August 2016}} HistoryAlmost all historical information about Masada comes from the first-century Jewish Roman historian Josephus.[4] Hasmonean fortressJosephus writes that the site was first fortified by Hasmonean ruler Alexander Jannaeus in the first century BCE.[4] However, no Hasmonean-period building remains could be identified during archaeological excavations.[6] Josephus further writes that Herod the Great captured it in the power struggle that followed the death of his father Antipater.[4] It survived the siege of the last Hasmonean king Antigonus II Mattathias, who ruled with Parthian support.[4] Herodian palace-fortressAccording to Josephus, between 37 and 31 BCE, Herod the Great built a large fortress on the plateau as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt, and erected there two palaces.[5] First Jewish-Roman War{{Main article|Siege of Masada}}In 66 CE, a group of Jewish rebels, the Sicarii, overcame the Roman garrison of Masada with the aid of a ruse.[4] After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, additional members of the Sicarii fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountaintop after slaughtering the Roman garrison.[4]{{dubious|Conquered twice? Romans killed twice? Either abandoned in between, or mistake.|date=August 2016}} According to Josephus, the Sicarii were an extremist Jewish splinter group antagonistic to a larger grouping of Jews referred to as the Zealots, who carried the main burden of the rebellion. Josephus said that the Sicarii raided nearby Jewish villages including Ein Gedi, where they massacred 700 women and children.[4][6][7][8] In 73 CE, the Roman governor of Iudaea, Lucius Flavius Silva, headed the Roman legion X Fretensis and laid siege to Masada.[4] The Roman legion surrounded Masada, built a circumvallation wall and then a siege ramp against the western face of the plateau.[4] According to Dan Gill,[9] geological investigations in the early 1990s confirmed earlier observations that the 114 m (375 ft) high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock. The ramp was complete in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16.[10][11] The Romans employed the X Legion and a number of auxiliary units and Jewish prisoners of war, totaling some 15,000 (of whom an estimated 8,000 to 9,000 were fighting men),[12] in crushing Jewish resistance at Masada. A giant siege tower with a battering ram was constructed and moved laboriously up the completed ramp. According to Josephus, when Roman troops entered the fortress, they discovered that its defendants had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide or killed each other, 960 men, women, and children in total. Josephus wrote of two stirring speeches that the Sicari leader had made to convince his men to kill themselves.[4] Only two women and five children were found alive.[4] Josephus presumably based his narration upon the field commentaries of the Roman commanders that were accessible to him.[13][14] Significant discrepancies exist between archaeological findings and Josephus' writings. Josephus mentions only one of the two palaces that have been excavated, refers only to one fire, while many buildings show fire damage, and claims that 960 people were killed, while the remains of only 28 bodies at the very most have been found.[15][27] The year of the siege of Masada may have been 73 or 74 CE.[16] Byzantine monastery of MardaMasada was last occupied during the Byzantine period, when a small church was established at the site.[17] The church was part of a monastic settlement identified with the monastery of Marda known from hagiographical literature.[18] This identification is generally accepted by researchers.[19] The Aramaic common noun marda, "fortress", corresponds in meaning to the Greek name of another desert monastery of the time, Kastellion, and is used to describe that site in the vita (biography) of St Sabbas, but it is only used as a proper name for the monastery at Masada, as can be seen from the vita of St Euthymius.[19] ArchaeologyChalcolithic periodAn almost inaccessible cave, dubbed Yoram Cave, located on the sheer southern cliff face 100 m below the plateau, has been found to contain numerous plant remains, of which 6,000-year-old barley seeds were in such good state of preservation that their genome could be sequenced.[20][21] This is the first time that this succeeded with a Chalcolithic plant genome, which is also the oldest one sequenced so far.[20] The result helped determine that the earliest domestication of barley, dated elsewhere in the Fertile Crescent to 10,000 years ago, happened further north up the Jordan Rift Valley, namely in the Upper Jordan Valley{{dubious|Term lacks clear definition in the paper abstract and BIU press releases available online for free. Probably from the sources to the Korazin block - ?|date=August 2016}} in northern Israel.[22] The Yoram Cave seeds were found to be fairly different from the wild variety, proof for an already advanced process of domestication, but very similar to the types of barley still cultivated in the region - an indication for remarkable constancy.[20] Considering the difficulty in reaching the cave, whose mouth opens some 4 m above the exposed access path, the researchers have speculated that it was a place of short-term refuge for Chalcolithic people fleeing an unknown catastrophe.[20][23] Identification and initial digsThe site of Masada was identified in 1838 by Americans Edward Robinson and Eli Smith, and in 1842, American missionary Samuel W. Wolcott and the English painter W. Tipping were the first moderns to climb it.[24] After visiting the site several times in the 1930s and 1940s, Shmarya Guttman conducted an initial probe excavation of the site in 1959. Yigael Yadin expeditionMasada was extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archaeologist and former military Chief-of-Staff Yigael Yadin. Due to the remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site remained largely untouched by humans or nature for two millennia. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. The synagogue, storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored. Water cisterns two-thirds of the way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to conserve enough water for such a long time. The Roman attack ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with eight Roman siege camps just outside this wall. The Roman siege installations as a whole, especially the attack ramp, are the best preserved of their kind, and the reason for declaring Masada a UNESCO World Heritage site. Epigraphic findingsInside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription me'aser cohen (tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls: parts of Deuteronomy and of the Book of Ezekiel including the vision of the "dry bones" ({{Bibleref2|Deuteronomy 33–34}} and {{Bibleref2|Ezekiel 35–38}}), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. In other loci, fragments were found of the books of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, and Sirach, as well as of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. In the area in front of the Northern Palace, 11 small ostraca were recovered, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Ya'ir" and could be short for Eleazar ben Ya'ir, the commander of the fortress. The other 10 names may be those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus. Human remainsThe remains of a maximum of 28 people[27] were unearthed at Masada, possibly 29 including a foetus.[25] The skeletal remains of 25 individuals were found in a cave outside and below the southern wall. The remains of another two males and a female were found in the bathhouse of the Northern Palace.[43] Of the bathouse remains, the males were variously and unconvincingly assessed to have been of an age of either 40 and 20–22, or 22 and 11-12, but the dental remains of both seem to be between 16-18 of age; and the female was described as 17–18 years old.[43][27] However, the skeletal remains of the males were incomplete, and only the hair (a full head of hair with braids) but no bones of the female were found.[43] Forensic analysis showed the hair had been cut from the woman's head with a sharp instrument while she was still alive, a practice prescribed for captured women in the Bible ({{Bibleref2|Deuteronomy 21:10-12}}) and the 2nd-century BCE Temple Scroll, while the braids indicate that she was married.[43] Based on the evidence, anthropologist Joe Zias and forensic scientist Azriel Gorski believe the remains may have been Romans whom the rebels captured when they seized the garrison.[26][27] As to the sparse remains of 24 people{{dubious|Not 25? Same source is indicated!|date=February 2019}} found in the southern cave at the base of the cliff, excavator Yigael Yadin was unsure of their ethnicity; however, the rabbinical establishment concluded that they were remains of the Jewish defenders, and in July 1969, they were reburied as Jews in a state ceremony.[28] Carbon dating of textiles found with the remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the revolt, and pig bones were also present (occasionally occurring for Roman burials due to pig sacrifices); this indicates that the remains may belong to non-Jewish Roman soldiers or civilians who occupied the site before or after the siege.[28] Zias also questioned whether as many as 24 individuals were present, since only 4% of that number of bones was recovered.[28] Roman-period palm seed{{main|Judean date palm}}A 2,000-year-old Judean date palm seed discovered during archaeological excavations in the early 1960s was successfully germinated into a date plant, popularly known as "Methuselah" after the longest-living figure in the Hebrew Bible. At the time, it was the oldest known germination,[29] remaining so until a new record was set in 2012.[30] As of September 2016, it remains the oldest germination from a seed. Byzantine monasteryThe remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the fifth and sixth centuries have been excavated on the plateau. Archaeology vs. JosephusNo Hasmonean buildings foundYadin's team could detect no architectural remains of the Hasmonean period, the only findings firmly dated to this period being the numerous coins of Alexander Jannaeus.[6] Researchers have speculated that the southwestern block of the Western Palace and the auxiliary buildings east and south of it could be Hasmonean, relying on similarities to the Twin Palaces at Jericho.[6] However, their excavators could make no archaeological discovery able to support this presumption.[31] Inaccurate descriptionAccording to Shaye Cohen, archaeology shows that Josephus' account is "incomplete and inaccurate". Josephus only writes of one palace; archaeology reveals two. His description of the northern palace contains several inaccuracies, and he gives exaggerated figures for the height of the walls and towers. Josephus' account is contradicted by the "skeletons in the cave, and the numerous separate fires".[32] Historicity of mass suicideAccording to Kenneth Atkinson, no "archaeological evidence that Masada's defenders committed mass suicide" exists.[33] Modern tourismMasada was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. In 2007, the Masada Museum in Memory of Yigael Yadin opened at the site, in which archeological findings are displayed in a theatrical setting. Many of the artifacts exhibited were unearthed by Yadin and his archaeological team from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1960s.[34][35] The archaeological site is situated in the Masada National Park, and the park requires an entrance fee (even if by hiking). There are two hiking paths, both very steep:
Hikers frequently start an hour before sunrise, when the park opens, to avoid the mid-day heat, which can exceed {{convert|43|C|F}} in the summer. In fact, the hiking paths are often closed during the day in the summer because of the heat. Visitors are encouraged to bring drinking water for the hike up, as water is only available at the top. Alternatively, for a higher fee, visitors can take a cable car (the Masada cableway, opens at 8 am) to the top of the mesa. A visitors' center and the museum are at the base of the cable car. A light-and-sound show is presented on some summer nights on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman Ramp path).[36] In May 2015, 20-year old American tourist Briana McHam fell 25 feet on Masada's Snake Path, after she became separated from her Florida State University tour group and went off the marked trail. Following an hour and a half search, Magen David Adom personnel found her unresponsive and suffering from dehydration. After failed attempts to resuscitate, she was declared dead at the scene.[37] Phases and layoutAn example of Herodian architecture, Masada was the first site Herod the Great fortified after he gained control of his kingdom.[38] Phase I: Western Palace etc.The first of three building phases completed by Herod began in 35 BCE. During the first phase the Western Palace was built, along with three smaller palaces, a storeroom, and army barracks. Three columbarium towers and a swimming pool at the south end of the site were also completed during this building phase.[39] The original center of the Western Palace was square and was accessed through an open courtyard on the northwest corner of the building. The courtyard was the central room of the Western Palace and directed visitors into a portico, used as a reception area for visitors. Visitors were then led to a throne room. Off the throne room was a corridor used by the king, with a private dressing room, which also had another entrance way that connected to the courtyard through the mosaic room. The mosaic room contained steps that led to a second floor with separate bedrooms for the king and queen.[39] Phase II: Northern Palace etc.The second building phase in 25 BCE included an addition to the Western Palace, a large storage complex for food, and the Northern Palace. The Northern Palace is one of Herod's more lavish palace-fortresses, and was built on the hilltop on the north side of Masada and continues two levels down, over the end of the cliffs. The upper terrace of the Northern Palace included living quarters for the king and a semicircular portico to provide a view of the area. A stairway on the west side led down to the middle terrace that was a decorative circular reception hall. The lower terrace was also for receptions and banquets. It was enclosed on all four sides with porticos and included a Roman bathhouse.[39] Phase III: casemate wall etc.In 15 BCE, during the third and final building phase, the entire site of Masada – except for the Northern Palace – was enclosed by a casemate wall, which consisted of a double wall with a space between that was divided into rooms by perpendicular walls; these were used as living chambers for the soldiers and as extra storage space. The Western Palace was also extended for a third time to include more rooms for the servants and their duties.[40]
GalleryLegacyWorld War IIThe Masada story was the inspiration for the "Masada plan" devised by the British during the Mandate era. The plan was to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, to stop Erwin Rommel's expected drive through the region in 1942. The plan was abandoned following Rommel's defeat at El Alamein.[43] Israeli armyThe chief of staff of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Moshe Dayan, initiated the practice of holding the swearing-in ceremony of Israeli Armoured Corps soldiers who had completed their tironut (IDF basic training) on top of Masada. The ceremony ended with the declaration: "Masada shall not fall again." The soldiers climbed the Snake Path at night and were sworn in with torches lighting the background.[44] These ceremonies are now also held at various other locations, including the Armoured Corps Memorial at Latrun, the Western Wall and Ammunition Hill in Jerusalem, Akko prison, and training bases. In popular culture
See also{{Portal|Israel}}
References1. ^{{Audio|He-Masada.ogg|pronunciation}}; the term simply means "fortress" in Modern Hebrew; in Biblical Hebrew {{lang|he|מְצָד}} {{transl|he|mĕtsad}} "mountain-fortress; stronghold" from a root meaning "to hunt, lie in wait for prey". Gesenius, Hebrew-English Lexicon (H4679). 2. ^Most popular during 2008; {{cite web |url= http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3698864,00.html| title= Masada tourists' favorite spot in Israel |publisher=Ynetnews |access-date=2009-04-08}}.During 2005 to 2007 and 2009 to 2012, it was the second-most popular, behind the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo. 3. ^{{cite journal |title= Genomic analysis of 6,000-year-old cultivated grain illuminates the domestication history of barley: Supplementary Text and Figures |author= Martin Mascher|display-authors=etal|journal=Nature Genetics |date=18 July 2016 |volume= |publisher= Macmillan Publishers |location= |doi=10.1038/ng.3611 |issn=1061-4036 |url= http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/vaop/ncurrent/extref/ng.3611-S1.pdf |access-date=12 August 2016}} 4. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 {{cite book |pages=378–381 |title=The Holy Land |series=Oxford Archaeological Guides |first1=Jerome |last1=Murphy-O'Connor |first2=Barry |last2=Cunliffe |edition=5th |publisher=Oxford University Press}} 5. ^Cohen, Shaye. "Roman Domination: The Jewish Revolt and the Destruction of the Second Temple," in Ancient Israel, ed. Hershel Shanks. (Biblical Archaeology Society, 1999), p. 269-273. 6. ^The Wars of the Jews, or History of the Destruction of Jerusalem, by Flavius Josephus, translated by William Whiston, Project Gutenberg, Book IV, Chapter 7, Paragraph 2. 7. ^Flavius Josephus, De bello Judaico libri vii, B. Niese, Ed. J. BJ 4.7.2 8. ^[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ancient-battle-divides-israel-as-masada-myth-unravels-1275878.html Ancient battle divides Israel as Masada 'myth' unravels; Was the siege really so heroic, asks Patrick Cockburn in Jerusalem], The Independent, 30 March 1997 9. ^Gill, Dan. "A natural spur at Masada", Nature 364, pp. 569–570 (12 August 1993); DOI 10.1038/364569a0 10. ^Duncan B. Campbell, "Capturing a desert fortress: Flavius Silva and the siege of Masada", Ancient Warfare Vol. IV, no. 2 (Spring 2010), pp. 28–35. The dating is explained on pp. 29 and 32. 11. ^{{cite web|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1040 |title=Masada – UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher=Whc.unesco.org |date=2001-12-13 |access-date=2013-07-20}} 12. ^{{cite book|last1=Sheppard|first1=Si|title=The Jewish revolt, AD 66-73|date=2013|publisher=Osprey Publishing Ltd.|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-78096-183-5|pages=83}} 13. ^{{cite web |last=Stiebel |first=Guy D. |title=Masada |work=Encyclopaedia Judaica |publisher= Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik |edition= 2nd |volume= 13 |location=Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 593–599. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 10 July 2013 |url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX2587513369&v=2.1&u=new55117&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w}} 14. ^{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YoXUXvBUUjgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Massada+suicide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Nz5XUcDCEKKe0QW7z4CYDQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Massada%20suicide&f=false |title= Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel |last=Nachman |first=Ben-Yehuda |page= 48}} 15. ^{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkOIQ9JgR-cC&pg=PA215&dq=Massada+suicide&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_UtXUbOoDomp0QXuxYDQAg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Massada%20suicide&f=false |title= Making History: Josephus And Historical Method |publisher= Zuleika Rodgers |page= 215}} 16. ^{{cite journal | author = H. M. Cotton | year = 1989 | title = The date of the fall of Masada: the evidence of the Masada papyri | journal = Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik | volume = 78 | pages = 157–62}} 17. ^{{cite book |author1=Glenda W. Friend |author2=Steven Fine |lastauthoramp=yes |chapter= Masada |pages=428–430 |title= The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East |publisher= Oxford University Press |volume= 1 |year= 1997}} 18. ^Yizhar Hirschfeld. The Monastery of Marda: Masada in the Byzantine Period, Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society;2001/2002, Vol. 19/20, p 119, Jan. 2001 (abstract) 19. ^1 {{cite book |title=Orte und Landschaften der Bibel: ein Handbuch und Studien-Reiseführer zum Heiligen Land |volume=2 |author1=Othmar Keel |author2=Max Küchler |author3=Christoph Uehlinger |year=1982 |location=Göttingen |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |page=588 |isbn=9783545230422 |quote= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3jsKqzuP5YC&pg=PA987&lpg=PA987&dq=%22Orte+und+Landschaften+der+Bibel%22++marda&source=bl&ots=O371T-brae&sig=u2u_cyMpnD4gnxLIZtQKYAYtXKY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj90rqVwfDMAhXFKywKHeDDA6wQ6AEIHTAA#v=onepage&q=marda&f=false |access-date=23 May 2016 }} 20. ^1 2 3 {{cite web |title=Genome of 6,000-year-old barley grains sequenced for first time |author=Spokesman BIU |work=Bar-Ilan in the Press |publisher=Bar-Ilan University |date=19 July 2016 |url=http://www1.biu.ac.il/indexE.php?id=33&pt=20&pid=117&level=2&cPath=33&type=1&news=2760 |accessdate=12 August 2016}} 21. ^{{cite news |author=Ido Efrati |title=Domestication of barley began in northern Israel, 6000-year-old grains reveal |newspaper=Haaretz |date=19 July 2016 |url= http://www.haaretz.com/jewish/archaeology/1.731807 |accessdate=12 August 2016 }} 22. ^{{cite journal |title=Genomic analysis of 6,000-year-old cultivated grain illuminates the domestication history of barley |author=Martin Mascher|display-authors=etal|journal=Nature Genetics |date=18 July 2016 |volume= |publisher=Macmillan Publishers |location= |doi=10.1038/ng.3611 |issn=1061-4036 |url=http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ng.3611.html#access |accessdate=12 August 2016}} 23. ^{{cite news |author=Ilan Ben Zion |title=6 millennia old but ‘almost fresh,’ Masada seeds unravel barley’s origins |newspaper=The Times of Israel |date=18 July 2016 |url= http://www.timesofisrael.com/6-millennia-old-but-almost-fresh-masada-seeds-unravel-barleys-origins/ |accessdate=12 August 2016 }} 24. ^My Promised Land, Ari Shavit, 2013, p 80. 25. ^James D. Tabor, [https://pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/archaeology-and-the-dead-sea-scrolls/masada-cave-20002001 Masada: Cave 2000/2001], on the website "The Jewish Roman World of Jesus", University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Posted no earlyer than October 1994, accessed February 2019. 26. ^1 2 3 4 Joseph (Joe) Zias and Azriel Gorski, [https://www.academia.edu/25836648/Capturing_a_Beautiful_Woman_at_Masada Capturing a Beautiful Woman at Masada], Near Eastern Archaeology (NEA) (69:1), 2006, pp. 45-48. 27. ^{{cite news |last= Friedman |first= Matti |date=June 22, 2007 |title= Some Masada Remains Questioned by Study |work= Washington Post |url= https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/06/22/AR2007062201113.html |access-date=March 22, 2010 }} 28. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book |author=Joe Zias |chapter=Human Skeletal Remains from the Southern cave at Masada and the Question of Ethnicity |title=The Dead Sea scrolls fifty years after their discovery |editor=L. Schiffman, J. VanderKam and M. Emanuel |publisher=Israel Exploration Society |year=2000 |place=Jerusalem |pages=732–738}} 29. ^{{cite news |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/2000yearold-seed-grows-into-tree-of-life-for-scientists-846247.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614174628/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/2000yearold-seed-grows-into-tree-of-life-for-scientists-846247.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=June 14, 2008 |title=2,000-year-old seed grows into 'tree of life' for scientists |date=June 13, 2008 |access-date=2008-06-17 |publisher=Independent News |location=London |first=Steve |last=Connor |df= }} 30. ^{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/21/science/new-life-from-an-arctic-flower-that-died-32000-years-ago.html | title=Dead for 32,000 Years, an Arctic Plant Is Revived | date=February 20, 2012| access-date=2012-02-20 | publisher=New York Times | location=New York| first=Nicholas| last=Wade}} 31. ^1 2 3 {{cite book |work=Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land |title=Masada |author=Avraham Negev and Shimon Gibson |year=2001 |location=New York and London |publisher=Continuum |page=322 |isbn=0-8264-1316-1 }} 32. ^{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mmj4RcszCHgC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q=masada&f=false| title = The significance of Yavneh and other essays in Jewish Hellenism | author = Shaye J.D. Cohen | page=143}} 33. ^{{cite book |title= Making History: Josephus And Historical Method |editor=Zuleika Rodgers |publisher=Brill |date=2007 |page=397}} 34. ^{{cite web|title=The Yigael Yadin Masada Museum: Gift of the Shuki Levy Foundation|url=http://old.parks.org.il/BuildaGate5/general2/data_card.php?U=no&SiteName=parks&ItemID=546680273&ValuePage=Card12|publisher=Israel Nature and Parks Authority|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229085425/http://old.parks.org.il/BuildaGate5/general2/data_card.php?U=no|archivedate=2015-12-29|df=}} 35. ^{{cite web|title=The Masada Museum in Memory of Yigael Yadin, Funded by the Shuki Levy Foundation|url=http://archaeology.huji.ac.il/exhibitions/exhibit_Yadin.asp|publisher=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem}} 36. ^{{cite web|title=Masada Sound and Light Show|url=http://old.parks.org.il/BuildaGate5/general2/data_card.php?U=no&SiteName=parks&ItemID=455458065&ValuePage=Card12|publisher=Israel Nature and Parks Authority|quote=March to October every Tuesday and Thursday at 9 P.M.|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151229085425/http://old.parks.org.il/BuildaGate5/general2/data_card.php?U=no|archivedate=2015-12-29|df=}} 37. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.haaretz.com/.premium-20-year-old-u-s-tourist-falls-to-death-at-masada-1.5363937 |title=20-year-old U.S. tourist falls to her death at Masada |last=Seidler |first=Shirley |publisher=Haaretz |date=May 19, 2015 |website=Haaretz.com |access-date=January 23, 2018}} 38. ^Roller, Duane W. The Building Program of Herod the Great/ Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998. 39. ^1 2 Netzer, Ehud. The Palaces of the Hasmoneans and Herod the Great. Jerusalem: Yed Ben-Zvi Press and The Israel Exploration Society, 2001. 40. ^Yadin, Yigael. Masada: Herod's Fortress and the Zealots' Last Stand. London, 1966. 41. ^1 {{cite book |title=The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700 |series=Oxford Archaeological Guides |author=Jerome Murphy-O'Connor |year=2008 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=385 |isbn=978-0-19-923666-4 |quote=... a small, deep, stepped pool with a triangular balcony. The niches for clothes led to its identification as a swimming pool. There are those who prefer to think of it as a ritual bath (mikveh); it may well have been used as such by the Zealots. |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=m3Yy9FDcT8gC&pg=PT48&lpg=PT48&dq=%22began+in+the+north+in+1537+and+continued+down+the+east+and+west+sides%22&source=bl&ots=Hv7zZyYFL7&sig=_pxHUiAqEHj3XHuagqxlnm8OJ1M&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22swimming%20pool%22&f=false |accessdate=12 August 2016 }} 42. ^1 {{cite book |title=Masada |authors=Mikha Livne and Ze'ev Meshel, introduction by Yigael Yadin, maps and pictures by the Masada Archaeological Expedition |year=1965 |location=Jerusalem |publisher=Direction des parcs nationaux |quote=Piscine hérodienne (Herodian swimming pool) |language=French }} 43. ^{{cite book |last=Ben-Yehuda |first=Nachman |title=Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel |url=https://books.google.co.il/books?id=YoXUXvBUUjgC&pg=PA131&dq=Masada+plan&hl=es-419&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE-N_qkKnbAhUDEiwKHRIvBSsQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=Masada%20plan&f=false|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1995 |pages=131–132 |isbn=9780299148331}} 44. ^Dan Bitan, Mesada the Symbol and the Legend, the Dead Sea and the Judean Desert, 1960, Yad Ben Zvi 45. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.algemeiner.com/2012/08/03/on-the-rise-hebrew-hammer-cletus-seldin-seeks-to-join-ranks-of-historic-jewish-boxers/ |title=On the Rise: 'Hebrew Hammer' Cletus Seldin Seeks to Join Ranks of Historic Jewish Boxers |work=Algemeiner.com}} 46. ^{{cite news|title=Jean-Michel Jarre to play anti-Donald Trump Dead Sea concert|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/03/jean-michel-jarre-anti-donald-trump-dead-sea-concert|accessdate=18 April 2017|work=The Guardian|date=3 April 2017}} 47. ^https://marvel.com/comics/issue/16266/exiles_2001_25 Further reading
External links{{Commons}}{{Wikivoyage}}{{Wikisource|The War of the Jews/Book VII|The War of the Jews: Book VII, Chapters 8 and 9}}
16 : Masada|30s BC establishments|Archaeological museums in Israel|Archaeological sites in Israel|Buildings and structures in Southern District (Israel)|Cliffs|Fortifications in Israel|Historic sites in Israel|Mountain monuments and memorials|Museums in Southern District (Israel)|National parks of Israel|Protected areas of Southern District (Israel)|Ancient Jewish settlements of Judaea|70s disestablishments in the Roman Empire|1st-century battles|70s conflicts |
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