“Max Müller”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Friedrich Max Müller ({{IPA-de|ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈmaks ˈmʏlɐ|lang}};^[1]^[2] 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900), generally known as Max Müller, was a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life. He was one of the founders of the western academic field of Indian studies and the discipline of comparative religion.^[3] Müller wrote both scholarly and popular works on the subject of Indology. The Sacred Books of the East, a 50-volume set of English translations, was prepared under his direction. He also promoted the idea of a Turanian family of languages.

Early life and education

Friedrich Max Müller was born into a cultured family on 6 December 1823 in Dessau, the son of Wilhelm Müller, a lyric poet whose verse Franz Schubert had set to music in his song-cycles Die schöne Müllerin and Winterreise. His mother, Adelheid Müller (née von Basedow), was the eldest daughter of a prime minister of Anhalt-Dessau. Carl Maria von Weber was a godfather.^[4]

Müller was named after his mother's elder brother, Friedrich, and after the central character, Max, in Weber's opera Der Freischütz. Later in life, he adopted Max as a part of his surname, believing that the prevalence of Müller as a name made it too common.^[4] His name was also recorded as "Maximilian" on several official documents (e.g. university register, marriage certificate),{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} on some of his honours^[5] and in some other publications.^[6]

Müller entered the gymnasium (grammar school) at Dessau when he was six years old. In 1829, after the death of his grandfather, he was sent to the Nicolai School at Leipzig, where he continued to his studies of music and classics. It was during his time in Leipzig that he frequently met Felix Mendelssohn.^[4]

In need of a scholarship to attend Leipzig University, Müller successfully sat his abitur examination at Zerbst. While preparing, he found that the syllabus differed from what he had been taught, necessitating that he rapidly learn mathematics, modern languages and science.^[4] He entered Leipzig University in 1841 to study philology, leaving behind his early interest in music and poetry. Müller received his degree in 1843. His final dissertation was on Spinoza's Ethics.^[3] He also displayed an aptitude for classical languages, learning Greek, Latin, Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit.

Academic career

In 1850 Müller was appointed deputy Taylorian professor of modern European languages at Oxford University. In the following year, at the suggestion of Thomas Gaisford, he was made an honorary M.A. and a member of the college of Christ Church, Oxford. On succeeding to the full professorship in 1854, he received the full degree of M.A. by Decree of Convocation. In 1858 he was elected to a life fellowship at All Souls' College.^[7]

He was defeated in the 1860 election for the Boden Professor of Sanskrit, which was a "keen disappointment" to him.^[8] Müller was far better qualified for the post than the other candidate (Monier Monier-Williams), but his broad theological views, his Lutheranism, his German birth and lack of practical first-hand knowledge of India told against him. After the election he wrote to his mother, "all the best people voted for me, the Professors almost unanimously, but the vulgus profanum made the majority".^[9]

Later in 1868, Müller became Oxford's first Professor of Comparative Philology, a position founded on his behalf. He held this chair until his death, although he retired from its active duties in 1875.^[10]

Scholarly and literary works

Sanskrit studies

In 1844, prior to commencing his academic career at Oxford, Müller studied in Berlin with Friedrich Schelling. He began to translate the Upanishads for Schelling, and continued to research Sanskrit under Franz Bopp, the first systematic scholar of the Indo-European languages (IE). Schelling led Müller to relate the history of language to the history of religion. At this time, Müller published his first book, a German translation of the Hitopadesa, a collection of Indian fables.^[11]

In 1845 Müller moved to Paris to study Sanskrit under Eugène Burnouf. Burnouf encouraged him to publish the complete Rigveda, making use of the manuscripts available in England. He moved to England in 1846 to study Sanskrit texts in the collection of the East India Company. He supported himself at first with creative writing, his novel German Love being popular in its day.

Müller's connections with the East India Company and with Sanskritists based at Oxford University led to a career in Britain, where he eventually became the leading intellectual commentator on the culture of India. At the time, Britain controlled this territory as part of its Empire. This led to complex exchanges between Indian and British intellectual culture, especially through Müller's links with the Brahmo Samaj.

Müller's Sanskrit studies came at a time when scholars had started to see language development in relation to cultural development. The recent discovery of the Indo-European language group had started to lead to much speculation about the relationship between Greco-Roman cultures and those of more ancient peoples. In particular the Vedic culture of India was thought to have been the ancestor of European Classical cultures. Scholars sought to compare the genetically related European and Asian languages to reconstruct the earliest form of the root-language. The Vedic language, Sanskrit, was thought to be the oldest of the IE languages.

Müller devoted himself to the study of this language, becoming one of the major Sanskrit scholars of his day. He believed that the earliest documents of Vedic culture should be studied to provide the key to the development of pagan European religions, and of religious belief in general. To this end, Müller sought to understand the most ancient of Vedic scriptures, the Rig-Veda. Müller was greatly impressed by Ramakrishna Paramhansa, his contemporary and proponent of Vedantic philosophy, and wrote several essays and books about him.^[12]

For Müller, the study of the language had to relate to the study of the culture in which it had been used. He came to the view that the development of languages should be tied to that of belief-systems. At that time the Vedic scriptures were little-known in the West, though there was increasing interest in the philosophy of the Upanishads. Müller believed that the sophisticated Upanishadic philosophy could be linked to the primitive henotheism of early Vedic Brahmanism from which it evolved. He had to travel to London to look at documents held in the collection of the British East India Company. While there he persuaded the company to allow him to undertake a critical edition of the Rig-Veda, a task he pursued over many years (1849–1874).^[13] He completed the critical edition for which he is most remembered.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}. Scientific American carried his obituary in the edition of 8 December 1900 of the magazine. It was revealed that Max Muller had in fact usurped the full credit for the translation of the Rig veda which was actually not his work at all, but of another unnamed german scholar whom Muller had paid to translate the text. To quote from his obituary in Scientific American, "What he constantly proclaimed to be his own great work, the edition of the "Rig Veda," was in reality not his at all. A German scholar did the work, and Muller appropriated the credit for it."^[14]

For Müller, the culture of the Vedic peoples represented a form of nature worship, an idea clearly influenced by Romanticism. Müller shared many of the ideas associated with Romanticism, which coloured his account of ancient religions, in particular his emphasis on the formative influence on early religion of emotional communion with natural forces.^[15] He saw the gods of the Rig-Veda as active forces of nature, only partly personified as imagined supernatural persons. From this claim Müller derived his theory that mythology is "a disease of language". By this he meant that myth transforms concepts into beings and stories. In Müller's view, "gods" began as words constructed to express abstract ideas, but were transformed into imagined personalities. Thus the Indo-European father-god appears under various names: Zeus, Jupiter, Dyaus Pita. For Müller all these names can be traced to the word "Dyaus", which he understood to imply "shining" or "radiance". This leads to the terms "deva", "deus", "theos" as generic terms for a god, and to the names "Zeus" and "Jupiter" (derived from deus-pater). In this way a metaphor becomes personified and ossified. This aspect of Müller's thinking was later explored similarly by Nietzsche.

Gifford Lectures

In 1888, Müller was appointed Gifford Lecturer at the University of Glasgow. These Gifford Lectures were the first in an annual series, given at several Scottish universities, that has continued to the present day. Over the next four years, Müller gave four series of lectures.^[3] The titles and order of the lectures were as follows:^[16]

As translator

In 1881, he published a translation of the first edition of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. He agreed with Schopenhauer that this edition was the most direct and honest expression of Kant's thought. His translation corrected several errors that were committed by previous translators.^[18] In his Translator's Preface, Müller wrote

Müller continued to be influenced by the Kantian Transcendentalist model of spirituality,^[19] and was opposed to Darwinian ideas of human development.^[20] He argued that "language forms an impassable barrier between man and beast."^[21]

He was also influenced by the work Thought and Reality, of the Russian philosopher African Spir. {{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Views on India

Early career

In his career, Müller several times expressed the view that a "reformation" within Hinduism needed to occur, comparable to the Christian Reformation.^[22] In his view, "if there is one thing which a comparative study of religions places in the clearest light, it is the inevitable decay to which every religion is exposed... Whenever we can trace back a religion to its first beginnings, we find it free from many blemishes that affected it in its later states".^[23]

He used his links with the Brahmo Samaj to encourage such a reformation on the lines pioneered by Ram Mohan Roy. Müller believed that the Brahmos would engender an Indian form of Christianity and that they were in practice "Christians, without being Roman Catholics, Anglicans or Lutherans". In the Lutheran tradition, he hoped that the "superstition" and idolatry, which he considered to be characteristic of modern popular Hinduism, would disappear.^[24]

Müller hoped that increased funding for education in India would promote a new form of literature combining Western and Indian traditions. In 1868 he wrote to George Campbell, the newly appointed Secretary of State for India:

Late career

In his sixties and seventies, Müller gave a series of lectures, which reflected a more nuanced view in favour of Hinduism and the ancient literature from India. In his "What can India teach us?" lecture at University of Cambridge, he championed ancient Sanskrit literature and India as follows:

He also conjectured that the introduction of Islam in India in the 11th century had a deep effect on the psyche and behaviour of Hindus in another lecture, "Truthful Character of the Hindus":

Controversies

Anti-Christian

During the course of his Gifford Lectures on the subject of "natural religion", Müller was severely criticised for being anti-Christian. In 1891, at a meeting of the Established Presbytery of Glasgow, Mr. Thomson (Minister of Ladywell) moved a motion that Müller's teaching was "subversive of the Christian faith, and fitted to spread pantheistic and infidel views amongst the students and others" and questioned Müller's appointment as lecturer.^[31] An even stronger attack on Müller was made by Monsignor Alexander Munro in St Andrew's Cathedral. Munro, an officer of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland (and Provost of the Catholic Cathedral of Glasgow from 1884 to 1892), declared that Müller's lectures "were nothing less than a crusade against Divine revelation, against Jesus Christ, and against Christianity". The blasphemous lectures were, he continued, "the proclamation of atheism under the guise of pantheism" and "uprooted our idea of God, for it repudiated the idea of a personal God".^[32]

Similar accusations had already led to Müller's exclusion from the Boden chair in Sanskrit in favour of the conservative Monier Monier-Williams. By the 1880s Müller was being courted by Charles Godfrey Leland, medium and Freemason Helena Blavatsky, and other writers who were seeking to assert the merits of "pagan" religious traditions over Christianity. The designer Mary Fraser Tytler stated that Müller's book Chips from a German Workshop (a collection of his essays) was her "Bible", which helped her to create a multi-cultural sacred imagery.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

Müller distanced himself from these developments, and remained within the Lutheran faith in which he had been brought up. According to G. Beckerlegge, "Müller's background as a Lutheran German and his identification with the Broad Church party" led to "suspicion by those opposed to the political and religious positions that they felt Müller represented", particularly his latitudinarianism.^[33]

Although Müller took a strong religious and academic interest in Hinduism and other non-Christian religions, and often compared Christianity to religions that many traditional Protestants would have regarded as primitive or false, he grounded his Perennialism in a belief that Christianity possessed the fullest truth of all living religions.^[17]{{rp|109–10}} Twenty-first century scholars of religion, far from accusing Müller of being anti-Christian, have critically examined Müller's theological project as evidence for a bias towards Christian conceptions of God in early academic religious studies.^[17]{{rp|120–2}}^[34]

Darwin disagreement

Müller attempted to formulate a philosophy of religion that addressed the crisis of faith engendered by the historical and critical study of religion by German scholars on the one hand, and by the Darwinian revolution on the other. He was wary of Darwin's work on human evolution, and attacked his view of the development of human faculties. His work was taken up by cultural commentators such as his friend John Ruskin, who saw it as a productive response to the crisis of the age (compare Matthew Arnold's "Dover Beach"). He analysed mythologies as rationalisations of natural phenomena, primitive beginnings that we might denominate "protoscience" within a cultural evolution.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} Müller also proposed an early, mystical interpretation of theistic evolution, using Darwinism as a critique of mechanical philosophy.^[17]{{rp|113}}

In 1870 Müller gave a short course of three lectures for the British Institution on language as the barrier between man and beast, which he called "On Darwin's Philosophy of Language". Müller specifically disagreed with Darwin's theories on the origin of language and that the language of man could have developed from the language of animals. In 1873, he sent a copy of his lectures to Darwin reassuring him that, though he differed from some of Darwin's conclusions, he was one of his "diligent readers and sincere admirers".^[35]

Aryanism

Müller's work contributed to the developing interest in Aryan culture, which often set Indo-European ("Aryan") traditions in opposition to Semitic religions. He was "deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms", as this was far from his intention.^[36]{{page needed|date=October 2018}}{{Failed verification|reason=Book absent|date=October 2018}} For Müller the discovery of common Indian and European ancestry was a powerful argument against racism, arguing that "an ethnologist who speaks of Aryan race, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a linguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic grammar" and that "the blackest Hindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the fairest Scandinavians".^[37]^[38]

Turanian

Müller put forward and promoted the theory of a "Turanian" family of languages or speech, comprising the Finnic, Samoyedic, "Tataric" (Turkic), Mongolic, and Tungusic languages.^[39] According to Müller these five languages were those "spoken in Asia or Europe not included under the Arian (sic) and Semitic families, with the exception perhaps of the Chinese and its dialects". In addition, they were "nomadic languages," in contrast to the other two families (Aryan and Semitic), which he called State or political languages.^[40]

The idea of a Turanian family of languages was not accepted by everyone at the time.^[41] Although the term "Turanian" quickly became an archaism^[42] (unlike "Aryan"), it did not disappear completely. The idea was absorbed later into nationalist ideologies in Hungary and Turkey.^[43]

Honours

In 1869 Müller was elected to the French Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres as a foreign correspondent (associé étranger).^[5]

In June 1874 Müller was awarded the Pour le Mérite (civil class), much to his surprise. Soon after, when he was commanded to dine at Windsor, he wrote to Prince Leopold to ask if he might wear his Order, and the wire came back, "Not may, but must."^[44]

In 1875 Müller was awarded the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art. The award is given to acknowledge excellent and outstanding achievements in the field of science and art. In a letter to his mother dated 19 December, Müller wrote that the award was more showy than the Pour le Mérite, "but that is the best".^[45]

Personal life

He married Georgina Adelaide Grenfell on 3 August 1859. The couple had four children – Ada, Mary, Beatrice and Wilhelm Max – of whom two predeceased them.^[4]

Georgina (died 1919) had his papers and correspondence bound; they are at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.^[47]

Death and legacy

Müller's health began deteriorating in 1898 and he died at his home in Oxford on 28 October 1900. He was interred at Holywell Cemetery on 1 November 1900.^[3]

After his death a memorial fund was opened at Oxford for "the promotion of learning and research in all matters relating to the history and archaeology, the languages, literatures, and religions of ancient India".^[48]

The Goethe Institutes in India are named Max Müller Bhavan in his honour, as is a street (Max Mueller Marg) in New Delhi.^[49]

Müller's biographies include those by Lourens van den Bosch (2002), Jon R. Stone (2002) and Nirad C. Chaudhuri (1974), the last of which was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award for English by Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters. Stephen G. Alter's (2005) work contains a chapter on Müller's rivalry with the American linguist William Dwight Whitney.

Publications

Müller's scholarly works, published separately as well as an 18-volume Collected Works, include:

References

1. ^{{citation|author=John C. Wells|year=2008|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition=3rd|publisher=Longman|isbn=9781405881180}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Max_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Duden {{!}} Max {{!}} Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition|work=Duden|quote=Mạx|accessdate=20 October 2018|language=de}}
3. ^¹²³Sara Abraham and Brannon Hancock, doctoral students of theology in University of Glasgow Friedrich Max Muller. Gifford Lectures.
4. ^¹²³⁴R. C. C. Fynes (May 2007), Müller, Friedrich Max (1823–1900), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, , accessed 17 March 2013] {{ODNBsub}}
5. ^¹Académiciens depuis 1663. Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
6. ^Charles Johnston (1900) [https://archive.org/details/americanmonthly12shawgoog An Estimate of Max Muller (1823–1900)]. The American Monthly Review of Reviews, Vol XXII, July–December. The Review of Reviews Company: New York, pp.703–706.
7. ^Dictionary of National Biography, 1901 supplement.
8. ^Müller (1902), pp. 241–242
9. ^Müller (1902), p. 244
10. ^{{cite book|title = The Harmsworth Encyclopaedia: Everybody's Book of Reference : containing 50,000 articles, profusely illustrated, Volume 6|author = George Sandeman|publisher = The Amalgamated Press|page = 4042|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2oRRAAAAYAAJ|date = 1907*}}
11. ^{{cite book|title = Fifty Key Thinkers on Language and Linguistics|author = Margaret Thomas|page = 109|publisher = Routledge|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0415373029}}
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.vedanta-newyork.org/articles/on_sri_ramakrishna.htm#muller|title=Vedanta Society of New York: Ramakrishna|publisher=|accessdate=25 August 2016|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916163215/http://www.vedanta-newyork.org/articles/on_sri_ramakrishna.htm#muller|archivedate=16 September 2016}}
13. ^{{cite book|title = Sayana, Volume 203|author = B. R. Modak|publisher = Sahitya Akademi|isbn = 9788172019402|page=33|year = 1995}}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000018628364;view=1up;seq=369;size=300|title=Scientific American. v.50.|publisher=|accessdate=25 August 2016}}
15. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O-7xYYt0oJsC&lpg=PA336&dq=max%20muller%20romanticism&pg=PA336#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Studying Hinduism: Key Concepts and Methods|first1=Sushil|last1=Mittal|first2=Gene|last2=Thursby|date=10 September 2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|accessdate=25 August 2016|via=Google Books|isbn=9780203939734}}
16. ^Müller, F. Max (1895), Theosophy or Psychological Religion. London: Longmans, Green and Co., pp.89–90.
17. ^¹²³{{Cite book | last = Josephson-Storm | first = Jason | title = The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences |location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 2017 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-226-40336-6 }}
18. ^{{cite book|title = The Athenaeum|author=J.Lection|quote=At times Prof. Muller has succeeded in correcting an error and in coming closer to his original or has modified the harshness of Mr. Meiklejohn's style; but in other passages we prefer the latter, and of certain general changes made by Prof. Max Muller.|year = 1882|page = 629}} Original from Priceton University
19. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=h5XMBlBVbQsC&pg=PA218 Kant's Critique of Pure Reason], Last Essays by the Right Hon. Professor F. Max Müller ... First Series: Essays on Language, Folklore and Other Subjects; pub. by Longmans, Green and Company, 1901.
20. ^{{cite book|title = The Twentieth Century, Volume 23|page=745|quote = according to Mr. Max Muller, Kant established against Darwin by proving that there is transcendentalist side to human knowledge which affords.}} Original from Cornell University
21. ^Müller, F. Max. (1899) Three Lectures on the Science of Language, etc., with a Supplement, My Predecessors. 3rd ed. Chicago. p. 9.
22. ^{{cite journal|author=Menant, M. D. |year=1907|title=Influence of Max Muller's Hibbert Lectures in India|journal=The American Journal of Theology|volume=11|issue= 2|pages= 293–307|jstor=3153715|url=https://archive.org/details/jstor-3153715|doi=10.1086/478685}}
23. ^{{cite book|title=Classical Approaches to the Study of Religion: Aims, Methods, and Theories of Research, Volume 1|page = 87|author = Jacques Waardenburg|year = 1999|publisher = Walter de Gruyter|isbn=9783110163285}}
24. ^Sharada Sugirtharajah (2003) Imagining hinduism: a postcolonial perspective. Routledge. pp. 60–61. {{ISBN|8120840917}}
25. ^{{cite book|title = The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate|author = Edwin Bryant|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=289|year=2001|isbn=9780195137774}}
26. ^{{cite book|title=Karmic Traces, 1993–1999|author=Eliot Weinberger|publisher=New Directions Publishing|year=2000|page=174|isbn=9780811214568}}
27. ^Müller (1902), pp. 357–358
28. ^Max Müller, INDIA – LECTURE I. WHAT CAN INDIA TEACH US?, A Course of Lectures Delivered before the University of Cambridge, Project Gutenberg
29. ^Max Müller, INDIA – LECTURE II. Truthful Character of the Hindus, A Course of Lectures Delivered before the University of Cambridge, Project Gutenberg
30. ^{{Citation|author=Swami Nikhilananda |year=1953 |title=Vivekananda: A Biography |p=106 |url=http://www.vivekananda.net/PDFBooks/BiographybyNikhilananda.pdf |publisher=Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center |location=New York |isbn=978-0-911206-25-8 |accessdate=19 March 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120125032814/http://www.vivekananda.net/PDFBooks/BiographybyNikhilananda.pdf |archivedate=25 January 2012 }}
31. ^Müller (1902), p. 262
32. ^Müller (1902), p. 263
33. ^Beckerlegge, G. (1997) "Professor Friedrich Max Müller and the Missionary Cause". In, John Wolffe (Ed) Religion in Victorian Britain V Culture and Empire. Manchester University Press, p.189.
34. ^{{cite book|title= Manufacturing Religion: The Discourse on Sui Generis Religion and the Politics of Nostalgia |author=Russell T. McCutcheon |location = New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | date = 1997 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=NKtPBsVd0d8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|pages = 58–61|isbn= 978-0195355680}}
35. ^Charles Darwin. More Letters of Charles Darwin – Volume 2. p. 397
36. ^{{cite book|title = Mapping channels between Ganges and Rhein: German-Indian cross-cultural relations|quote=In later years, especially before his death, he was deeply saddened by the fact that these classifications later came to be expressed in racist terms.|author1=Jorg Esleben |author2=Jörg Esleben |author3=Christina Kraenzle |author4=Sukanya Kulkarni |publisher=Cambridge Scholars publication|year=2008|isbn=9781847185877}}
37. ^F. Max Müller (1888) [https://archive.org/details/biographiesword01mlgoog/page/n8 Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas]. Kessinger Publishing reprint, 2004, p.120
38. ^Dorothy Matilda Figueira (2002) Aryans, Jews, Brahmins: Theorizing Authority Through Myths of Identity, SUNY Press. p. 45. {{ISBN|0791455327}}
39. ^Müller, M. (1854) The last results of the researches respecting the non-Iranian and non-Semitic languages of Asia or Europe, or the Turanian family of language. (Letter of Professor Max Muller to Chevalier Bunsen; Oxford August 1853; on the classification of the Turanian languages). In, Christian Bunsen (1854) Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History, Applied to Language and Religion. In Two Volumes. Vol. 1. London: Brown, Green, and Longmans.
40. ^M. Müller (1855) [https://archive.org/details/languagesseatwa00mlgoog/page/n9 The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian]. London: Williams and Norgate, p. 86.
41. ^{{cite book|title = The Origins of Himalayan Studies: Brian Houghton Hodgson in Nepal and Darjeeling|page = 20/232 |author = David Waterhouse|year=2002|isbn=9780203480359|quote = In 1910, a full decade after Muller's death, the Turan Tarsasag 'Turanian Society' was founded in order to study the history and culture of the Hungarians and other 'Turanian' peoples.}}
42. ^T. Masuza (2005) The Invention of World Religions, Or, How European Universalism was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. The University of Chicago Press, p. 229. {{ISBN|0226509893}}
43. ^Günay Göksu Özdoğan: The case of racism-Turanism: Turkism during single-party period, 1931–1944: a radical variant of Turkish nationalism
44. ^Müller (1902), p. 462
45. ^Müller (1902), p. 503
46. ^{{London Gazette |issue=26754 |date=30 June 1896 |page=3767 }}
47. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/dept/scwmss/wmss/online/1500-1900/muller/maxmuller.html|title=Max Muller Papers|publisher=|accessdate=25 August 2016}}
48. ^Max Müller Memorial Fund {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103023849/http://www.orinst.ox.ac.uk/general/trust_funds/max_muller_memorial_fund.html |date=3 January 2011 }}. Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Oxford.
49. ^About Max Mueller. Goethe-Institut / Max Mueller Bhavan.
50. ^{{Cite book|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/30269|title=My Autobiography: A Fragment|first=F. Max (Friedrich Max)|last=Müller|date=16 October 2009|publisher=|accessdate=25 August 2016|via=Project Gutenberg}}