| 词条 | Milorganite |
| 释义 |
Milorganite is a brand of biosolids fertilizer produced by treating sewage sludge by the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District.[1] The term is a portmanteau of the term Milwaukee Organic Nitrogen. The sewer system of the District collects municipal wastewater from the Milwaukee metropolitan area. It is coarsely filtered and treated with microbes to break down organic matter at the Jones Island sewage treatment plant (also called "Water Reclamation Facility") in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The byproduct sewage sludge is produced. This is heat-dried to {{convert|900-1200|°F|°C}}, which kills pathogens. The result is then pelletized and marketed throughout North America[1] under the name Milorganite. The treated wastewater is discharged to Lake Michigan. Recycled fertilizer contains nitrogen and phosphorus, essential nutrients plants need for growth. Its use can help offset the amount of chemical based fertilizer produced. After more than 90 years, Milorganite production and use is a long-term and large-scale example of a municipality-run nonprofit environmental program.[1][4][5][6] History"Milorganite" is a portmanteau of the term Milwaukee Organic Nitrogen. It was the winning entry in a 1925 naming contest for a biosolids-based fertilizer held in National Fertilizer Magazine. Its history began with Milwaukee's goal to clean up its rivers and Lake Michigan.[2][3] Rather than land filling solids left over from wastewater treatment, the sludge was used in a pioneering effort to make, distribute and sell fertilizer.[4] The resulting production is among the largest recycling programs in the world.[5][5] Milorganite's roots began in 1911, when local socialist politicians were elected on a platform calling for construction of a wastewater treatment plant to protect against water borne pathogens.[2][6] As raising taxes for public health was relatively controversial in the early 1900s,{{citation needed|date=February 2017}} producing an organic fertilizer as a means of partially offsetting its operating cost was proposed. With the help of researchers in the College of Agriculture at the University of Wisconsin, the use of waste solids in the form of activated sludge as a source of fertilizer had been developed in the early 20th century.[7] Experiments showed that heat-dried activated sludge pellets "compared favorably with standard organic materials such as dried blood, tankage, fish scap, and cottonseed meal."[8] The Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District's Jones Island Plant had the largest water treatment capacity of any in the world when constructed in 1925,[9] and was the first in the United States to succeed in using the activated sludge treatment process to produce fertilizer.[5][18][19] The Plant has been designated as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers.[10][11][12] Milorganite made its debut in 1926 as the first pelletized fertilizer in the United States,[13] with sales directed at golf courses,[3] turf farms and flower growers.[14] The brand was popularized during the 1930s and 1940s before inorganic urea became available to homeowners after WWII. Since its inception, over four million metric tons of Milorganite have been sold.[4] As of 2012, the plant produces about 45,000 tons of Milorganite per year.[13] The sale of product does not generate sufficient funds to cover the costs of manufacture, but the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District states that the environmental benefits are a legitimate offsetting consideration:[4] "Headquartered in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Milorganite products are manufactured and marketed by the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District (MMSD), a regional government agency whose primary focus is providing water reclamation and flood management services for about 1.1 million customers in 28 communities in the Greater Milwaukee Area. Since 1926 MMSD has been a world leader in supplying Organic Nitrogen fertilizers for professional and residential use. While revenue generated through the sale of Milorganite products does not make up for the entire cost to produce and market, our belief in beneficial reuse and recycling makes producing our value added products the clear choice."[15] Even as it balances such conflicting goals and successfully navigates the fluctuations and vagaries of a changing waste stream,{{efn-ua|Such as the impact upon both the quality and the quantity of raw material available with Milwaukee losing much of its malting and brewing industry through the departure of once-giant local concerns Schlitz Brewing Company and Pabst Brewing Company).[2]}}Milorganite has been at the forefront of the sewage sludge recycling industry in the U.S.[2] Changes in the economy and the resultant sewage to be treated have had an impact on Milorganite production.[3] The process is the end point of the Milwaukee County sewerage system, which includes "three thousand miles of household laterals and another 3,000 miles of sanitary sewers." Also included is the {{convert|28.5|mi}} "deep tunnel project" and the {{convert|521|e6usgal|e6m3+e6impgal}} overflow storage system. Two plants, one on Jones Island and the other in Oak Creek, process sewage using bacteria. They employ about 220 people. Methane is recaptured and used to minimize energy costs.[1] ProductHeat-dried biosolids contain slow release organic nitrogen, largely water-insoluble phosphorus bound with iron and aluminum and high organic matter.[16] Milorganite can be used without restriction on gardens intended for human consumption under United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rules.[17] The product is tested daily for the presence of heavy metals and waterborne pathogens. It complies with the EPA "Exceptional Quality" criteria, which establishes the strictest concentration limits in the fertilizer industry for heavy metals, allowing Milorganite to be used on food crops.[18] Milorganite is also tested for the presence of contaminants such as waste pharmaceuticals and other forms of drug pollution.[37] According to its material safety data sheet Milorganite is "registered for sale in all 50 states and meets all federal and state requirements."[17][19] The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) certifies it as biobased because it is derived from 85% renewable materials.[15] It is not, however, certified for use on USDA organic farms.[20] Suggestions that Milorganite deters deer are unsubstantiated, and the reputed costs{{efn-ua|Studies paid for by the water district at the University of Georgia and Cornell showed it to be effective in deterring deer.[42] However, the projected cost of EPA certification was estimated at between $1 and $2 million, equivalent to half the organization's entire annual $2 to $3 million advertising and public contact budget.}} of having it certified as a repellent are greater than its potential return.[21][20][22][23] The Environmental Protection Agency denied the application to permit its use as a deer repellant because of a lack of supporting studies showing its environmental impact.[3] "Milorganite Weed and Feed”, combining it with 2,4-D, in a partnership with Parker Fertilizer was considered in 1971. Seeking to associate itself with the “ecology kick”, Milorganite’s marketing staff considered the implications of “Milorganite-cide blends.” Critics said that the invention of such a product was a repudiation of the sewage district’s history, in the first place. It was eventually rejected, and was never marketed to the public.[3] Claims that it was a “natural, organic and/or safe” product came into focus in 1992, when the Federal Trade Commission began an investigation saying the claim was deceptive. By 2000, the United States Department of Agriculture banned Milorganite’s application to any crops bearing the label “organic.”[3] Environmental concernsThe EPA and others have shown that biosolids can contain measurable levels of synthetic organic compounds, radionuclides and heavy metals.[24][25][26] USEPA has set numeric limits for arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc.[27] The presence of heavy metals is a source of concern. The facility reports that they have been substantially reduced over the last 20 years.[28] The EPA has not regulated levels of environmentally toxic manmade dioxins.[27] Substantial levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, a type of "persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic" (PBT) contaminant, were detected in biosolids in 2001.[29] This finding came despite the EPA's previous assertion that all PBT organic pollutants of concern had been banned from production in the 1970s and hence these could be ignored in risk assessment. In 2007, toxic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were detected in Milorganite, donated to the City of Milwaukee and subsequently applied on city parkland.[30] The cost to the Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District and tax payers was estimated as $4.7 million.[31] PCBs were banned from commerce in the US in the mid-1970s. The source of the PCB contamination was later determined to be a shuttered die-casting facility. The PCBs made their way to the treatment plant via sewer lines years after the facility stopped operation. The United States Geological Survey analyzed in 2014 nine different consumer products containing biosolids as a main ingredient for 87 organic chemicals found in cleaners, personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and other products. These analysis detected 55 of the 87 organic chemicals measured in at least one of the nine biosolid samples, with 45 chemicals found in milorganite.[32] See also
ReferencesNotes1. ^1 {{cite web|url=https://onmilwaukee.com/history/articles/makingmilorganite.html|title=In Milwaukee History: Milorganite is made! Made in Milwaukee: Milorganite|date=May 12, 2017|publisher=House of Harley-Davidson|work=Made in Milwaukee|first1=Bobby|last1=Tanzilo|accessdate=July 4, 2017}} Further reading2. ^1 2 3 {{cite book |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=JMu6pdfkFEsC&pg=PA170 |pages=170–192 |first1=Daniel |last1=Schneider |title=Histories of the Dustheap: Waste, Material Cultures, Social Justice |editor-first1=Stephanie |editor-last1=Foote |editor-first2=Elizabeth |editor-last2=Mazzolini|publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=2012 |chapter=7, "Purification or Profit: Milwaukee and the Contradiction of Sludge"}} 3. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=6xnhZI5KUs0C&pg=PA175 |publisher=The MIT Press |title=Hybrid Nature: Sewage Treatment and the Contradictions of the Industrial Ecosystem (Urban and Industrial Environments) |type=Hardcover |isbn=9780262016445 |date=September 30, 2011 |quote=Winner, 2013 George Perkins Marsh Prize, awarded by the American Society for Environmental History |first1=Daniel |last1=Schneider |series=Urban and Industrial Environments |page=175}} 4. ^1 2 3 {{cite press release |url=http://www.prweb.com/releases/2012Milorganite/06OrganicFertilizer/prweb9563797.htm |title=Milorganite Reaches 9 Billion Pounds with 85 Years of Recycling |publisher=PRWEB |location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin |date=June 2, 2012 |accessdate=March 26, 2014}} 5. ^1 2 {{cite book |title=Historical Report Photographs, Written Historical and Descriptive Data |work=Historic American Engineering Record |first1=Raymond H. |last1=Merritt |year=1982 |publisher=National Park Service |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/habshaer/wi/wi0100/wi0154/data/wi0154data.pdf |accessdate=April 1, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407095944/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pnp/habshaer/wi/wi0100/wi0154/data/wi0154data.pdf |archivedate=April 7, 2014 |df= }} 6. ^{{cite journal |first1=Clifford |last1=Mortimer |date=May 1981 |url=https://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/54945 |title=The Lake Michigan Pollution Case: A Review and Commentary on the Limnological and Other Issues |location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin |journal=Publications of the Great Lakes Center for Research |publisher=Center for Great Lakes Studies, University of Wisconsin {{ndash}} Milwaukee |pages=2–3 |accessdate=March 29, 2014}}. 7. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://www.milorganite.com/en/Header-Links/About-Us/History.aspx |title=History of Milorganite |publisher=Milorganite/Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District |accessdate=March 26, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326164445/http://www.milorganite.com/en/Header-Links/About-Us/History.aspx |archivedate=March 26, 2014 |df= }} 8. ^Eleventh Annual Report of the Sewerage Commission of the City of Milwaukee for 1924, pp. 32–42. 9. ^{{cite book |url=http://www.freese.com/sites/default/files/Century.pdf |page=44 |title=A Century in the Works: 100 Years of Progress in Civil and Environmental Engineering; Freese and Nichols Consulting Engineers 1894–1994 |first1=Simon W., P.E. |last1=Freese |first2=Deborah Lightfoot |last2=Sizemore |accessdate=April 2, 2014}} 10. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/20017WTF.txt?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=1976%20Thru%201980&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&UseQField=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&XmlQuery=&File=D%3A%5CZYFILES%5CINDEX%20DATA%5C76THRU80%5CTXT%5C00000009%5C20017WTF.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h%7C-&MaximumDocuments=1&FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16/i425&Display=p%7Cf&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1 |title=Environmental Draft Impact Statement: Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewage District; Water Pollution Abatement Program, No. E1S801072DB |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |date=November 1980 |page=V-100 |accessdate=April 1, 2014}} 11. ^{{cite press release |author=American Society of Civil Engineers|author-link=American Society of Civil Engineers |date=August 13, 1974 |title=Regarding designation of the Jones Island plant as a national engineering landmark}} 12. ^{{cite book |url=http://www.watercases.org/LIB_2/2C_The_Milwaukee_Case/2C1._Jones_Island_(Milw.)_plant_history.pdf |title=Historic Documentation of the Jones Island West Plant |date=April 1982 |publisher=Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District |work=Milwaukee Water Pollution · Abatement Program |author1=Program Management Office, Milwaukee Water Pollution Abatement Program|author2=CH2M HILL, INC. |author3=Donohue & Associates, Inc. |author4=Howard Needles Tammen & Bergendoff |author5=Graef, Anhalt, Schloemer and Associates, Inc. |author6=Poly tech, Inc. |author7=J.C. Zimmerman Engineering Corp. |author8=Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc. |location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin |accessdate=August 8, 2015}} 13. ^1 2 3 {{cite news |url=http://onmilwaukee.com/market/articles/makingmilorganite.html |title=Urban spelunking: Brewing up Milorganite |first1=Bobby |last1=Tanzilo |publisher=RSS Feed/OnMilwaukee.com |date=28 September 2012 |accessdate=28 March 2014}} 14. ^See, North American's Most Widely Known, Respected, and Beloved Turfgrass Agronomist, The O.J. Noer Research Foundation, Inc., Michigan State U. Libraries, Turfgrass Information Center, www.lib.msu.edu/tgif. 15. ^1 2 3 {{cite web |url=http://www.milorganite.com/About |title=About us |publisher=Milorganite/Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District |accessdate=March 28, 2014}} 16. ^{{cite journal |first1=Matt |last1=Miller |first2=George A. |last2=O'Connor |title=Longer-term Phytoavailability of Biosolids-Phosphorus |number=101 |journal=Agronomy Journal |volume=101 |pages=889–896 |year=2009|doi=10.2134/agronj2008.0197x }} or puri.fcla.edu/fcia/etd/UFE0022710 17. ^1 {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=H2HxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA112&lpg=PA112&dq=Jones+Island+Plant+Wisconsin+NRHP+nomination#v=onepage&q=Jones%20Island%20Plant%20Wisconsin%20NRHP%20nomination&f=false |page=112 |title=21st Century Homestead: Organic Farming |first1=Lamont |last1=Fedigan |accessdate=August 8, 2015|isbn=9781312937536 |date=2015-02-21 }} 18. ^{{cite web|url=http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/water.nsf/NPDES%2BPermits/Sewage%2BS825/$FILE/503-032007.pdf |title=Standards for the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |work=Region 10: The Pacific Northwest |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611220706/http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/water.nsf/NPDES%2BPermits/Sewage%2BS825/%24FILE/503-032007.pdf |archivedate=June 11, 2014 |df= }} 19. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.milorganite.com/en/Retailers/Product-Information/MSDS.aspx |title=Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) |publisher=Milorganite |accessdate=April 3, 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407075609/http://www.milorganite.com/en/Retailers/Product-Information/MSDS.aspx |archivedate=April 7, 2014 |df= }} 20. ^1 2 {{cite web |first1=Ellen Z. Director |last1=Harrison|url=http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/milorganite.pdf |title=Fact Sheet 2006: Home Garden Use of Milorganite |location=Ithaca, NY |publisher=Cornell University Waste Management Institute |year=2006 |accessdate=March 28, 2014}} 21. ^1 {{cite web |url=http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/for05-001/for05-001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090530100406/http://warnell.forestry.uga.edu/service/library/for05-001/for05-001.pdf |dead-url=yes |archive-date=2009-05-30 |title=Using Milorganite to temporarily repel white-tailed deer from food plots |first1=Odin L. |last1=Stephens |first2=Michael T. |last2=Mengak |first3=David |last3=Osborn |first4=Karl V. |last4=Miller |publisher=University of Georgia Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources |work=Wildlife Management Series |number=2 |date=March 2005 |accessdate=April 1, 2014}} 22. ^1 {{cite news |url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/milwaukee/37804899.html |first1=Don |last1=Behm |title=EPA derails plans to market Milorganite as deer repellent |newspaper=Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel |date=January 18, 2009 |accessdate=March 29, 2014}} 23. ^{{cite journal |url=http://www.biosolids.org/news_weekly.asp?id=2131 |publisher=National Biosolids Partnership |title=Newsletter |date=January 22, 2009 |accessdate=March 28, 2014}} 24. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.biosolids.com.au/what-are-biosolids.php |title=What are biosolids? |last= |first= |website= |publisher=Australian Water Association |accessdate=24 April 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423124151/http://www.biosolids.com.au/what-are-biosolids.php |archivedate=23 April 2015 |df= }} 25. ^{{Cite web|title = Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report - Overview|url = http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm|website = water.epa.gov|accessdate = 2015-05-18}} 26. ^{{Cite web|url = http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/docs/tenorm/832-r-03-002b.pdf|title = ISCORS Assessment of Radioactivity in Sewage Sludge: Recommendations on Management of Radioactive Materials in Sewage Sludge and Ash at Publicly Owned Treatment Works|date = April 2004|accessdate = 18 May 2015|website = United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)|publisher = Interagency Steering Committee on Radiation Standards|last = |first = }} 27. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://www.wef.org/globalassets/assets-wef/3---resources/topics/a-n/biosolids/technical-resources/wef-land-app-fact-sheet---rev0510.pdf |title=Land Application and Composting of Biosolids |publisher=Water Environment Federation |accessdate=January 26, 2018}} 28. ^{{cite news |url=http://home.eng.iastate.edu/~jea/w3-class/456/article/milorganite.html |title='FLUSH WITH SUSPICION' (RE: Milwaukee's WWTP Milorganite Sludge Product) |first1=Will |last1=Fantle |work=Milwaukee Magazine |volume=21 |number=11 |pages=48–55. |date=November 1996}} 29. ^{{cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/35084130 |title=Flame retardants: Persistent pollutants in land-applied sludges |date=July 12, 2001|journal=Nature |volume=412 |issue=6843 |pages=140–14 |doi=10.1038/35084130|pmid=11449259 |last1=Hale |first1=Robert C. |last2=La Guardia |first2=Mark J. |last3=Harvey |first3=Ellen P. |last4=Gaylor |first4=Michael O. |last5=Mainor |first5=T. Matteson |last6=Duff |first6=William H. }} 30. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/milwaukee/29423464.html|title=Chemicals in fertilizer shut parts of parks |date=August 30, 2009|newspaper=Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel |deadurl=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090830045831/http://www.jsonline.com/news/milwaukee/29423464.html|archivedate=30 August 2009|df=}} 31. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.jsonline.com/news/milwaukee/29473719.html|title=Milorganite contamination sourced|date=September 21, 2015|quote=Toxic chemical may have leaked from old die-casting company|first=Don|last=Behm|newspaper=Milwuakee Journal Sentinel|deadurl=bot: unknown|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921162355/http://www.jsonline.com/news/milwaukee/29473719.html|archivedate=21 September 2015|df=}} 32. ^{{cite web |url=http://toxics.usgs.gov/regional/emc/municipal_biosolids.html |title=Land Application of Municipal Biosolids |last= |first= |website=Environmental Health - Toxic Substances |publisher=United States Geological Survey |accessdate=April 24, 2015 }}
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7 : Agricultural chemicals|Agronomy|Companies based in Milwaukee|Fertilizers|Organic fertilizers|Sewerage|Soil improvers |
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