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词条 Mitochondrial Eve
释义

  1. History

     Early research  1987 publication  Criticism and later research 

  2. Female and mitochondrial ancestry

  3. Popular reception and misconceptions

     Not the only woman  Not a fixed individual over time  Not necessarily a contemporary of "Y-chromosomal Adam"  Not the most recent ancestor shared by all humans 

  4. See also

  5. References

  6. Further reading

  7. External links

{{main|Macro-haplogroup L (mtDNA)}}{{Further|First woman (disambiguation)}}{{Infobox haplogroup
|map = Early_diversification.PNG
|name= L
|origin-date= c. 100–230 kya[1]
|origin-place= East Africa
|ancestor= n/a
|descendants= Mitochondrial macro-haplogroups L0, L1, and L5
|mutations= None
}}

In human genetics, the Mitochondrial Eve (also mt-Eve, mt-MRCA) is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all currently living humans, i.e., the most recent woman from whom all living humans descend in an unbroken line purely through their mothers, and through the mothers of those mothers, back until all lines converge on one woman.

In terms of mitochondrial haplogroups, the mt-MRCA is situated at the divergence of macro-haplogroup L into L0 and L1–6. As of 2013, estimates on the age of this split ranged at around 150,000 years ago,[2]

consistent with a date later than the speciation of Homo sapiens but earlier than the recent Out-of-Africa dispersal.[3]

The male analog to the "Mitochondrial Eve" is the "Y-chromosomal Adam" (or Y-MRCA), the individual from whom all living humans are patrilineally descended. As the identity of both matrilineal and patrilineal MRCAs is dependent on genealogical history (pedigree collapse), they need not have lived at the same time.

As of 2013, estimates for the age Y-MRCA are subject to substantial uncertainty, with a wide range of times from 180,000 to 580,000 years ago[4][5][6] (with an estimated age of between 120,000 and 156,000 years ago, roughly consistent with the estimate for mt-MRCA.).[7][8]

The name "Mitochondrial Eve" alludes to biblical Eve. This led to repeated misrepresentations or misconceptions in journalistic accounts on the topic. Popular science presentations of the topic usually point out such possible misconceptions by emphasizing the fact that the position of mt-MRCA is neither fixed in time (as the position of mt-MRCA moves forward in time as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages become extinct), nor does it refer to a "first woman", nor the only living female of her time, nor the first member of a "new species".[9]

History

{{Human timeline}}

Early research

Early research using molecular clock methods was done during the late 1970s to early 1980s.

Allan Wilson, Mark Stoneking, Rebecca L. Cann and Wesley M. Brown found that mutation in human mtDNA was unexpectedly fast, at 0.02 substitution per base (1%) in a million years, which is 5–10 times faster than in nuclear DNA.[10]

Related work allowed for an analysis of the evolutionary relationships among gorillas, chimpanzees (common chimpanzee and bonobo) and humans.[11]

With data from 21 human individuals, Brown published the first estimate on the age of the mt-MRCA at 180,000 years ago in 1980.[12]

A statistical analysis published in 1982 was taken as evidence for recent African origin (a hypothesis which at the time was competing with Asian origin of H. sapiens).[13]

1987 publication

By 1985, data from the mtDNA of 145 women of different populations, and of two cell lines, HeLa and GM 3043, derived from a Black American and a !Kung respectively, was available. After more than 40 revisions of the draft, the manuscript was submitted to Nature in late 1985 or early 1986[14] and published on 1 January 1987. The published conclusion was that all current human mtDNA originated from a single population from Africa, at the time dated to between 140,000 and 200,000 years ago.[15]

The dating for "Eve" was a blow to the multiregional hypothesis, which was being controversially discussed at the time, and a boost to the theory of the recent origin model.[16]

Cann, Stoneking and Wilson did not use the term "Mitochondrial Eve" or even the name "Eve" in their original paper; it appears to originate with a 1987 article in Science by Roger Lewin, headlined "The Unmasking of Mitochondrial Eve."[17]

The biblical connotation was very clear from the start. The accompanying research news in Nature had the title "Out of the garden of Eden."[18]

Wilson himself preferred the term "Lucky Mother" [19] and thought the use of the name Eve "regrettable."[17][20]

But the concept of Eve caught on with the public and was repeated in a Newsweek cover story (11 January 1988 issue featured a depiction of Adam and Eve on the cover, with the title "The Search for Adam and Eve"),[21] and a cover story in Time on 26 January 1987.[22]

Criticism and later research

Shortly after the 1987 publication, criticism of its methodology and secondary conclusions was published.[23]

Both the dating of mt-Eve and the relevance of the age of the purely matrilineal descent for population replacement was controversially discussed during the 1990s;[24][25][26][27]

Alan Templeton (1997) asserted that the study did "not support the hypothesis of a recent African origin for all of humanity following a split between Africans and non-Africans 100,000 years ago" and also did "not support the hypothesis of a recent global replacement of humans coming out of Africa."[28]{{Harvtxt|Cann|Stoneking|Wilson|1987}}'s placement of a relatively small population of humans in sub-Saharan Africa was consistent with the hypothesis of Cann (1982) and lent considerable support for the "recent out-of-Africa" scenario.

In 1999 Krings et al. eliminated problems in molecular clocking postulated by Nei (1992){{cn|date=May 2018}} when it was found that the mtDNA sequence for the same region was substantially different from the MRCA relative to any human sequence.

Although the original research did have analytical limitations, the estimate on the age of the mt-MRCA has proven robust.[29][30] More recent age estimates have remained consistent with the 140–200 kya estimate published in 1987: A 2013 estimate dated Mitochondrial Eve to about 160 kya (within the reserved estimate of the original research) and Out of Africa II to about 95 kya.[31]

Another 2013 study (based on genome sequencing of 69 people from 9 different populations) reported the age of Mitochondrial Eve between 99 to 148 kya and that of the Y-MRCA between 120 and 156 kya.[7]

Female and mitochondrial ancestry

{{further|Genetic genealogy (matrilineal)|Mitochondrial DNA|Human mitochondrial molecular clock}}

Without a DNA sample, it is not possible to reconstruct the complete genetic makeup (genome) of any individual who died very long ago. By analysing descendants' DNA, however, parts of ancestral genomes are estimated by scientists. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y-chromosome DNA are commonly used to trace ancestry in this manner. mtDNA is generally passed un-mixed from mothers to children of both sexes, along the maternal line, or matrilineally.[32][33] Matrilineal descent goes back to our mothers, to their mothers, until all female lineages converge.

Branches are identified by one or more unique markers which give a mitochondrial "DNA signature" or "haplotype" (e.g. the CRS is a haplotype). Each marker is a DNA base-pair that has resulted from an SNP mutation. Scientists sort mitochondrial DNA results into more or less related groups, with more or less recent common ancestors. This leads to the construction of a DNA family tree where the branches are in biological terms clades, and the common ancestors such as Mitochondrial Eve sit at branching points in this tree. Major branches are said to define a haplogroup (e.g. CRS belongs to haplogroup H), and large branches containing several haplogroups are called "macro-haplogroups".

The mitochondrial clade which Mitochondrial Eve defines is the species Homo sapiens sapiens itself, or at least the current population or "chronospecies" as it exists today. In principle, earlier Eves can also be defined going beyond the species, for example one who is ancestral to both modern humanity and Neanderthals, or, further back, an "Eve" ancestral to all members of genus Homo and chimpanzees in genus Pan. According to current nomenclature,

Mitochondrial Eve's haplogroup was within mitochondrial haplogroup L because this macro-haplogroup contains all surviving human mitochondrial lineages today, and she must predate the emergence of L0.

The variation of mitochondrial DNA between different people can be used to estimate the time back to a common ancestor, such as Mitochondrial Eve. This works because, along any particular line of descent, mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations at the rate of approximately one every 3,500 years per nucleotide.[34][35][36] A certain number of these new variants will survive into modern times and be identifiable as distinct lineages. At the same time some branches, including even very old ones, come to an end, when the last family in a distinct branch has no daughters.

Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent common matrilineal ancestor for all modern humans. Whenever one of the two most ancient branch lines dies out, the MRCA will move to a more recent female ancestor, always the most recent mother to have more than one daughter with living maternal line descendants alive today. The number of mutations that can be found distinguishing modern people is determined by two criteria: firstly and most obviously, the time back to her, but secondly and less obviously by the varying rates at which new branches have come into existence and old branches have become extinct. By looking at the number of mutations which have been accumulated in different branches of this family tree, and looking at which geographical regions have the widest range of least related branches, the region where Eve lived can be proposed.

Popular reception and misconceptions

Newsweek reported on Mitochondrial Eve based on the Cann et al. study in January 1988, under a heading of "Scientists Explore a Controversial Theory About Man's Origins". The edition sold a record number of copies.[37]

The popular name "mitochondrial Eve", of 1980s coinage,[17] has contributed to a number of popular misconceptions. At first, the announcement of a "mitochondrial Eve" was even greeted with endorsement from young earth creationists, who viewed the theory as a validation of the biblical creation story.[38]

Due to such misunderstandings, authors of popular science publications since the 1990s have been emphatic in pointing out that the name is merely a popular convention, and that the mt-MRCA was not in any way the "first woman".[39] Her position is purely the result of genealogical history of human populations later, and as matrilineal lineages die out, the position of mt-MRCA keeps moving forward to younger individuals over time.

In River Out of Eden (1995), Richard Dawkins discussed human ancestry in the context of a "river of genes", including an explanation of the concept of Mitochondrial Eve.[40]

The Seven Daughters of Eve (2002) presented the topic of human mitochondrial genetics to a general audience.[41]The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa" by Stephen Oppenheimer (2003)[42] was adapted into a Discovery Channel documentary.[43]

Not the only woman

One common misconception surrounding mitochondrial Eve is that since all women alive today descended in a direct unbroken female line from her, she must have been the only woman alive at the time.[39][44] However, nuclear DNA studies indicate that the size of the ancient human population never dropped below tens of thousands. Other women living during Eve's time may have descendants alive today but not in a direct female line.{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

Not a fixed individual over time

The definition of mitochondrial Eve is fixed, but the woman in prehistory who fits this definition can change. That is, not only can our knowledge of when and where Mitochondrial Eve lived change due to new discoveries, but the actual mitochondrial Eve can change. The mitochondrial Eve can change, when a mother-daughter line comes to an end by chance. It follows from the definition of Mitochondrial Eve that she had at least two daughters who both have unbroken female lineages that have survived to the present day. In every generation mitochondrial lineages end – when a woman with unique mtDNA dies with no daughters. When the mitochondrial lineages of daughters of mitochondrial Eve die out, then the title of "Mitochondrial Eve" shifts forward from the remaining daughter through her matrilineal descendants, until the first descendant is reached who had two or more daughters who together have all living humans as their matrilineal descendants. Once a lineage has died out it is irretrievably lost and this mechanism can thus only shift the title of "Mitochondrial Eve" forward in time.

Because mtDNA mapping of humans is very incomplete, the discovery of living mtDNA lines which predate our current concept of "Mitochondrial Eve" could result in the title moving to an earlier woman. This happened to her male counterpart, "Y-chromosomal Adam," when older Y lines from Africa were discovered.

Not necessarily a contemporary of "Y-chromosomal Adam"

Sometimes mitochondrial Eve is assumed to have lived at the same time as Y-chromosomal Adam (from whom all living people are descended patrilineally), and perhaps even met and mated with him. Even if this were true, which is currently regarded as highly unlikely, this would only be a coincidence. Like mitochondrial "Eve", Y-chromosomal "Adam" probably lived in Africa. A recent study (March 2013) concluded however that "Eve" lived much later than "Adam" – some 140,000 years later.[5] (Earlier studies considered, conversely, that "Eve" lived earlier than "Adam".)[45] More recent studies indicate that mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam may indeed have lived around the same time.[46]

Not the most recent ancestor shared by all humans

{{Main|Most recent common ancestor}}

Mitochondrial Eve is the most recent common matrilineal ancestor, not the most recent common ancestor. Since the mtDNA is inherited maternally and recombination is either rare or absent, it is relatively easy to track the ancestry of the lineages back to a MRCA; however, this MRCA is valid only when discussing mitochondrial DNA. An approximate sequence from newest to oldest can list various important points in the ancestry of modern human populations:

  • The human MRCA. Monte Carlo simulations suggest the MRCA was born surprisingly recently, perhaps even within the last 5,000 years, even for people born on different continents.[47]
  • The identical ancestors point. Just a few thousand years before the most recent single ancestor shared by all living humans was the time at which all humans who were then alive either left no descendants alive today or were common ancestors of all humans alive today. In other words, "each present-day human has exactly the same set of genealogical ancestors" alive at the "identical ancestors point" in time. This is far more recent than when Mitochondrial Eve lived.[47]
  • Mitochondrial Eve, the most recent female-line common ancestor of all living people.
  • "Y-chromosomal Adam", the most recent male-line common ancestor of all living people.

See also

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
  • Archaeogenetics
  • Coalescent theory
  • Eurasian Adam
  • Genealogical DNA test
  • Genetic genealogy
  • Haplogroup L0 (mtDNA)
  • Human evolution
  • Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups
  • Last universal ancestor
  • Macro-haplogroup L (mtDNA)
  • Mitochondrial genome
  • Monogenism
  • Neutral theory of molecular evolution
  • Single origin hypothesis
  • Timeline of evolution
  • Timeline of human evolution
  • Y-chromosomal Aaron
  • Y-chromosomal Adam
{{div col end}}{{MtDNA}}

References

1. ^"the synonymous mutation rate of Kivisild et al. [...] estimates the coalescence time of the mtDNA tree overall at ~160,000 kya [...] We present a revised chronology using the complete mtDNA genome rate and an ML approach for the mtDNA tree in Figure 6, with full details of the age estimates and associated 95% confidence regions in Table S5."Pedro Soares et al 2009, Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock. and its Supplemental Data. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229152305/http://download.cell.com/AJHG/mmcs/journals/0002-9297/PIIS0002929709001633.mmc1.pdf |date=29 December 2009 }} The American Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 84, Issue 6, 740–59, 4 June 2009. "we estimate the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) of the Y chromosome to be 120 to 156 thousand years and the mitochondrial genome TMRCA to be 99 to 148 thousand years. Our findings suggest that, contrary to previous claims, male lineages do not coalesce significantly more recently than female lineages." {{cite journal |vauthors=Poznik GD, Henn BM, Yee MC, Sliwerska E, Euskirchen GM, Lin AA, Snyder M, Quintana-Murci L, Kidd JM, Underhill PA, Bustamante CD |title= Sequencing Y chromosomes resolves discrepancy in time to common ancestor of males versus females |journal= Science|volume= 341|issue=6145 | pages= 562–65 |date=August 2013|pmid=23908239|doi= 10.1126/science.1237619 |pmc=4032117|bibcode=2013Sci...341..562P}}
2. ^Two studies published in 2013 had 95% confidence intervals barely overlapping in the neighbourhood of 15 ka, a third study had a 95% confidence interval intermediate between the two others:"99 to 148 ka" according to {{cite journal |vauthors=Poznik GD, Henn BM, Yee MC, Sliwerska E, Euskirchen GM, Lin AA, Snyder M, Quintana-Murci L, Kidd JM, Underhill PA, Bustamante CD |title= Sequencing Y chromosomes resolves discrepancy in time to common ancestor of males versus females |journal= Science|volume= 341|issue=6145 | pages= 562–65 |date=August 2013|pmid=23908239|doi= 10.1126/science.1237619 |pmc=4032117|bibcode=2013Sci...341..562P}}."153 to 217 ka" according to : Rito T, Richards MB, Fernandes V, Alshamali F, Cerny V, Pereira L, Soares P., "The first modern human dispersals across Africa", PLoS One 2013 Nov 13; 8(11):e80031. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080031(ML whole-mtDNA age estimate: 178.8 [155.6; 202.2], ρ whole-mtDNA age estimate: 185.2 [153.8; 216.9], ρ synonymous age estimate: 174.8 [153.8; 216.9])."134 to 188 ka": {{cite journal|vauthors=Fu Q, Mittnik A, Johnson PL, Bos K, Lari M, Bollongino R, Sun C, Giemsch L, Schmitz R, Burger J, Ronchitelli AM, Martini F, Cremonesi RG, Svoboda J, Bauer P, Caramelli D, Castellano S, Reich D, Pääbo S, Krause J |title=A revised timescale for human evolution based on ancient mitochondrial genomes| journal= Current Biology|volume= 23|issue=7|pages= 553–59|date=March 21, 2013|pmid= 23523248|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.044|pmc=5036973}}.Soares et al. (2009): 150 to 234 ka (95% CI).
3. ^{{Citation|last1= Endicott | first1=P |last2=Ho | first2=SY | last3=Metspalu | first3=M | last4=Stringer | first4=C |title=Evaluating the mitochondrial timescale of human evolution |journal=Trends Ecol. Evol. |volume=24 |issue=9 |pages=515–21 |date=September 2009 |pmid=19682765 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.006 |url=}}{{Citation |vauthors=Soares P, Ermini L, Thomson N |title=Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=740–59 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19500773 |pmc=2694979 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001 |url=|display-authors=etal}}.University of Leeds – New 'molecular clock' aids dating of human migration history
4. ^{{Citation|last1=Mendez|first1=Fernando|last2=Krahn|first2=Thomas|last3=Schrack|first3=Bonnie|last4=Krahn|first4=Astrid-Maria|last5=Veeramah|first5=Krishna|last6=Woerner|first6=August|last7=Fomine|first7=Forka Leypey Mathew|last8=Bradman|first8=Neil|last9=Thomas|first9=Mark|title=An African American paternal lineage adds an extremely ancient root to the human Y chromosome phylogenetic tree|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|date=7 March 2013|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.02.002|url=http://haplogroup-a.com/Ancient-Root-AJHG2013.pdf|volume=92|issue=3|pages=454–59|pmid=23453668|pmc=3591855}}(95% confidence interval 237–581 kya)
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31. ^{{cite journal|vauthors=Fu Q, Mittnik A, Johnson PL, Bos K, Lari M, Bollongino R, Sun C, Giemsch L, Schmitz R, Burger J, Ronchitelli AM, Martini F, Cremonesi RG, Svoboda J, Bauer P, Caramelli D, Castellano S, Reich D, Pääbo S, Krause J |title=A revised timescale for human evolution based on ancient mitochondrial genomes| journal= Current Biology|volume= 23|issue=7|pages= 553–59|date=March 21, 2013|pmid= 23523248|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.044|pmc=5036973}}
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33. ^{{Citation|last=Birky|first=C. William|year=2008|title=Uniparental inheritance of organelle genes|journal=Current Biology|volume=18|issue=16|pages=R692–R695|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4T96DJ4-B&_user=10&_coverDate=08%2F26%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1232071752&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b73147dffdd2ca6a010de407176efd84|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909064841/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4T96DJ4-B&_user=10&_coverDate=08/26/2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1232071752&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=b73147dffdd2ca6a010de407176efd84|dead-url=yes|archive-date=2012-09-09|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.049|pmid=18727899}}
34. ^{{Citation|last1= Soares|first1= P |last2=Ermini |first2=L |last3=Thomson |first3=N |last4=Mormina |first4= M |last5= Rito|first5= T |last6=Röhl |first6=A |last7= Salas|first7= A |last8=Oppenheimer |first8= S |last9= Macaulay|first9= V |title=Correcting for purifying selection: an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock |journal=American Journal of Human Genetics |volume=84 |issue=6 |pages=740–59 |date=June 2009 |pmid=19500773 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001 |url=|pmc= 2694979 }}
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36. ^There are sites in mtDNA (such as: 16129, 16223, 16311, 16362) that evolve more rapidly, have been noted to change within intragenerational timeframes – {{Harvtxt |Excoffier|Yang|1999}}.
37. ^{{Citation |author=Oppenheimer, Stephen |title=The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa |publisher=Carroll & Graf |location=New York |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7867-1334-9 }}
38. ^{{Citation|author = Wieland C |url= http://creation.com/mitochondrial-eve-and-biblical-eve-are-looking-good-criticism-of-young-age-is-premature|title=Mitochondrial Eve and biblical Eve are looking good: criticism of young age is premature| journal= Journal of Creation |volume= 19|issue=1 |pages= 57–59| year=2005}}{{cite web|author = Nelson CW |url= http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/tj/v17/n1/events |title= Genetics and Biblical Demographic Events | work= answersingenesis.org|date=1 April 2003 |publisher=Answers in Genesis | accessdate=2013-05-16}}{{cite web|author = Oakes J|url= http://www.evidenceforchristianity.org/can-the-human-arguments-about-mitochondrial-eve-and-y-chromosome-adam-be-extended-to-the-animal-world-to-test-the-reality-of-the-flood-of-noahr/ |title= Can the human arguments about mitochondrial Eve and y-chromosome Adam be extended to the animal world to test the reality of the flood of Noah?|work = Evidence for Christianity |publisher=Answers in Genesis| accessdate=2013-05-16}}
39. ^1 {{Citation |last =Dawkins |first = Richard |title=The ancestor's tale: a pilgrimage to the dawn of evolution |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |year=2004 |pages= |isbn=978-0-618-00583-3 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=|title-link = The Ancestor's Tale }}
40. ^{{Citation|author=Richard Dawkins|title=River out of eden: a Darwinian view of life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxmKvnPyBSoC&pg=PP1|accessdate=5 December 2011|year=1995|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-06990-3}}
41. ^{{Citation|author=Bryan Sykes|title=The Seven Daughters of Eve: The Science That Reveals Our Genetic Ancestry|year=2002|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-32314-6}}
42. ^{{Citation |author=Stephen Oppenheimer |title=The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa |year=2003 |accessdate=5 December 2011 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-1192-5 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5tP5Wb92wT4C&dq=The+Real+Eve:+Modern+Man%27s+Journey+Out+of+Africa+2003 }}
43. ^ [https://books.google.com/books?id=5tP5Wb92wT4C&dq=The+Real+Eve:+Modern+Man%27s+Journey+Out+of+Africa+2003&hl=en&ei=E-_cTuCTNaXo0QHWy-F7&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&sqi=2&redir_esc=y The Real Eve: 6 Billion People ... from ONE Woman] (or Where We Came From in the United Kingdom).
44. ^{{Citation |last1=Takahata |first1= N |title=Allelic genealogy and human evolution |journal=Mol. Biol. Evol. |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=2–22 |date=January 1993 |pmid=8450756 |doi= 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a039995|url=http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8450756}}""
45. ^{{Citation | last1 = Cruciani | first1 = F | last2 = Trombetta | first2 = B | last3 = Massaia | first3 = A | last4 = Destro-Bisol | first4 = G | last5 = Sellitto | first5 = D | last6 = Scozzari | first6 = R | title = A Revised Root for the Human Y Chromosomal Phylogenetic Tree: The Origin of Patrilineal Diversity in Africa | journal = The American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 88 | issue = 6 | date = 10 June 2011 | pages = 814–18 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.05.002 | pmid=21601174 | pmc=3113241}}
46. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.nature.com/news/genetic-adam-and-eve-did-not-live-too-far-apart-in-time-1.13478|title=Genetic Adam and Eve did not live too far apart in time|first=Ewen|last=Callaway|date=6 August 2013|journal=Nature|doi=10.1038/nature.2013.13478}}
47. ^1 {{Citation|last1=Rohde|first1=DL|last2=Olson|first2=S|last3=Chang|first3 =JT|title=Modelling the recent common ancestry of all living humans|journal=Nature|volume=431|issue=7008|pages=562–66|date=September 2004 |pmid=15457259|doi=10.1038/nature02842|bibcode = 2004Natur.431..562R |citeseerx=10.1.1.78.8467}}

Further reading

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  • {{Citation |author1= Behar| title = The dawn of human matrilineal diversity | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 82 | issue = 5 | pages = 1130–40 |date=May 2008 | pmid = 18439549 | pmc = 2427203 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0002-9297(08)00255-3 |author2=Villems |author3=Soodyall |author4=Blue-Smith |author5=Pereira |author6=Metspalu |author7=Scozzari |author8=Makkan |author9=Tzur |first1=D }}
  • {{citation |last1=Brown |first1 = WM |title=Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA |volume=77 |issue=6 |pages=3605–09 |date=June 1980 |pmid=6251473 |pmc=349666 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.77.6.3605|url=|bibcode = 1980PNAS...77.3605B }}
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{{refend}}

External links

{{Spoken Wikipedia|Mitochondrial Eve.ogg|2005-04-22|SubCat=}}{{Commons category|Mitochondrial Eve}}
  • Krishna Kunchithapadam, "What, if anything, is a Mitochondrial Eve?" a simple explanation
  • [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9wS1za00mMM&feature=&p=A0D41D79D1CE0DBB&index=0&playnext=1 The Real Eve: Modern Man's Journey Out of Africa] – by Stephen Oppenheimer – Discovery Channel, 2002
{{Human Evolution}}{{Adam and Eve}}{{portal bar |Anthropology|Evolutionary biology|Paleontology}}{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2011}}

6 : Human mtDNA haplogroups|Human mitochondrial genetics|Genetic genealogy|Recent African origin of modern humans|Biology of gender|Hebrew Bible in popular culture
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