| 词条 | The Holocaust in Ukraine |
| 释义 |
| name = The Holocaust in Ukraine | image = Einsatzgruppen murder Jews in Ivanhorod, Ukraine, 1942.jpg | image_size = 300px | caption = SS paramilitaries murdering Jewish civilians, including a mother and child, in 1942, at Ivanhorod, Ukraine. | location = {{flag|Ukrainian SSR}} | date = 22 June 1941 to 1944 | incident_type = Imprisonment, mass shootings, concentration camps, ghettos, forced labor, starvation, torture, mass kidnapping | perpetrators = Erich Koch, Friedrich Jeckeln, Otto Ohlendorf, Paul Blobel and many others. Various local Nazi collaborators, including the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists[1][2][3][4] | organizations = Einsatzgruppen, Ordnungspolizei, and others | victims = More than a million Jews | memorials = At various points in country }} The Holocaust in Ukraine took place in Reichskommissariat Ukraine during the occupation of the Soviet Ukraine by Nazi Germany in World War II.[5] Between 1941 and 1944 more than a million Jews living in Ukrainian SSR were murdered as part of Generalplan Ost and the Final Solution extermination policies. According to Yale historian Timothy D. Snyder, "the Holocaust is integrally and organically connected to the Vernichtungskrieg, to the war in 1941, and is organically and integrally connected to the attempt to conquer Ukraine."[6] Generalplan Ost{{Main|Generalplan Ost|Final Solution}}One of Hitler's ambitions at the start of the war was to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs from their native lands so as to make living space for German settlers.[7] This plan of genocide[8] was to be carried into effect gradually over a period of 25–30 years.[9] According to historian William W. Hagen, "Generalplan Ost . . . forecast the diminution of the targeted east European peoples' populations by the following measures: Poles – 85 percent; Belarusians – 75 percent; Ukrainians – 65 percent; Czechs – 50 percent. ... The Russian people, once subjugated in war, would join the four Slavic-speaking nations whose fate Generalplan Ost foreshadowed."[7] Death squads (1941–1943){{Main|Einsatzgruppen}}Total civilian losses during the war and German occupation in Ukraine are estimated at four million, including up to a million Jews who were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen, the Order Police battalions, and local Nazi collaborators. Einsatzgruppe C (Otto Rasch) was assigned to north and central Ukraine, and Einsatzgruppe D (Otto Ohlendorf) to Moldavia, south Ukraine, the Crimea, and, during 1942, the north Caucasus. According to Ohlendorf's testimony at the Einsatzgruppen Trial, "the Einsatzgruppen had the mission to protect the rear of the troops by killing the Jews, Romani, Communist functionaries, active Communists, uncooperative slavs, and all persons who would endanger the security." In practice, their victims were nearly all Jewish civilians (not a single Einsatzgruppe member was killed in action during these operations{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}). The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum tells the story of one survivor of the Einsatzgruppen in Piryatin, Ukraine, when they killed 1,600 Jews on April 6, 1942, the second day of Passover: {{quote|I saw them do the killing. At 5:00 p.m. they gave the command, "Fill in the pits." Screams and groans were coming from the pits. Suddenly I saw my neighbor Ruderman rise from under the soil … His eyes were bloody and he was screaming: "Finish me off!" … A murdered woman lay at my feet. A boy of five years crawled out from under her body and began to scream desperately. "Mommy!" That was all I saw, since I fell unconscious.{{r|Berenbaum2006}}}}From September 16–30, 1941 the Nikolaev massacre in and around the city of Mykolaiv resulted in the deaths of 35,782 Soviet citizens, most of whom were Jews, as was reported to Hitler.[11] {{quote box |align=right |width=30% |fontsize=90%|quote= Jews of the city of Kiev and vicinity! On Monday, September 29, you are to appear by 08:00 a.m. with your possessions, money, documents, valuables, and warm clothing at Dorogozhitskaya Street, next to the Jewish cemetery. Failure to appear is punishable by death.|source=-- Order posted in Kiev in Russian and Ukrainian on or around September 26, 1941.{{sfn|Berenbaum|2006|pp=97-8}}}} The most notorious massacre of Jews in Ukraine was at the Babi Yar ravine outside Kiev, where 33,771 Jews were killed in a single operation on September 29–30, 1941. (An amalgamation of 100,000 to 150,000 Ukrainian and other Soviet citizens were also killed in the following weeks). The mass killing of Jews in Kiev was decided on by the military governor Major-General Friedrich Eberhardt, the Police Commander for Army Group South (SS-Obergruppenführer Friedrich Jeckeln) and the Einsatzgruppe C Commander Otto Rasch. It was carried out by a mixture of SS, SD and Security Police, assisted by the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police. On the Monday, the Jews of Kiev gathered by the cemetery, expecting to be loaded onto trains. The crowd was large enough that most of the men, women, and children could not have known what was happening until it was too late: by the time they heard the machine-gun fire, there was no chance to escape. All were driven down a corridor of soldiers, in groups of ten, and then shot. A truck driver described the scene: {{quote|[O]ne after the other, they had to remove their luggage, then their coats, shoes, and overgarments and also underwear … Once undressed, they were led into the ravine which was about 150 meters long and 30 meters wide and a good 15 meters deep … When they reached the bottom of the ravine they were seized by members of the Schutzmannschaft and made to lie down on top of Jews who had already been shot … The corpses were literally in layers. A police marksman came along and shot each Jew in the neck with a submachine gun … I saw these marksmen stand on layers of corpses and shoot one after the other … The marksman would walk across the bodies of the executed Jews to the next Jew, who had meanwhile lain down, and shoot him.{{sfn|Berenbaum|2006|pp=97-8}}}}Collaboration in Ukraine{{see also|Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers}}The National Geographic reported: A number of Ukrainians had collaborated: According to German historian {{Interlanguage link multi|Dieter Pohl (historian)|de|3=Dieter Pohl (Historiker)|lt=Dieter Pohl}}, around 100,000 joined police units that provided key assistance to the Nazis. Many others staffed the local bureaucracies or lent a helping hand during mass shootings of Jews. Ukrainians, such as the infamous Ivan the Terrible of Treblinka, were also among the guards who manned the German Nazi death camps.[12] According to The Simon Wiesenthal Center (in January 2011) "Ukraine has, to the best of our knowledge, never conducted a single investigation of a local Nazi war criminal, let alone prosecuted a Holocaust perpetrator."[13] According to the Israeli Holocaust historian Yitzhak Arad, "In January 1942 a company of Tatar volunteers was established in Simferopol under the command of Einsatzgruppe 11. This company participated in anti-Jewish manhunts and murder actions in the rural regions."[14] According to Timothy Snyder, "something that is never said, because it's inconvenient for precisely everyone, is that more Ukrainian Communists collaborated with the Germans, than did Ukrainian nationalists." As well, very many of those who collaborated with the German occupation, also collaborated Soviet policies of the 1930s.[15] Death tollUntil the fall of the Soviet Union, it was believed that about 900,000 Jews were murdered as part of the Holocaust in Ukraine. This is the estimate found in such respected works as The Destruction of the European Jews by Raul Hillberg. In the late 1990s, access to Soviet archives increased the estimates of the prewar population of Jews and as a result, the estimates of the death toll have been increasing. In the 1990s, Dieter Pohl estimated 1.2 million Jews murdered, and more recent estimates have been up to 1.6 million. Some of those Jews added to the death toll attempted to find refuge in the forest, but were killed later on by Home Army, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, or other partisan groups during the German retreat. According to American historian Wendy Lower, "there were many perpetrators, albeit with different political agendas, who killed Jews and suppressed this history".[16] Executor units
Survivors
RescuersUkraine rates the 4th in the number of people recognized as "Righteous Among the Nations" for saving Jews during the Holocaust, with the total of 2,515 individuals recognized as of 1 January 2015.[19] The Shtundists, an evangelical Protestant denomination which emerged in late 19th century Ukraine, helped hide Jews.[20] Massacres
See also
References1. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/880566030|title=Stepan Bandera : the life and afterlife of a Ukrainian nationalist : Fascism, genocide, and cult|last=Grzegorz,|first=Rossolinski,|date=2014|publisher=Ibidem-Verlag|isbn=9783838206868|location=Stuttgart, Germany|oclc=880566030}} 2. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/466441935|title=Holocaust in the Soviet Union.|last=1926-|first=Arad, Yitzhak,|date=2009|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=|isbn=9780803222700|location=Lincoln|page=89|pages=|oclc=466441935}} 3. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.jg-berlin.org/beitraege/details/nazikollaborateur-als-neuer-held-der-ukraine-i276d-2010-04-01.html|title=Nazikollaborateur als neuer Held der Ukraine - Jüdische Gemeinde zu Berlin|website=www.jg-berlin.org|language=de|access-date=2018-01-05}} 4. ^{{Cite journal|last=Himka|first=John-Paul|title=The Lviv Pogrom of 1941: The Germans, Ukrainian Nationalists, and the Carnival Crowd|url=https://www.academia.edu/1314919/The_Lviv_Pogrom_of_1941_The_Germans_Ukrainian_Nationalists_and_the_Carnival_Crowd|language=en}} 5. ^{{cite journal |last1=Gregorovich |first1=Andrew |title=World War II in Ukraine: Jewish Holocaust in Ukraine |journal=Reprinted from FORUM Ukrainian Review |date=1995 |issue=92 |url=http://www.infoukes.com/history/ww2/page-25.html}} 6. ^{{cite web|title=Timothy Snyder: Germany must own up to past atrocities in Ukraine |url=https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/timothy-snyder-germany-must-past-atrocities-ukraine.html|accessdate=5 July 2017}} 7. ^1 {{Cite book|last=Hagen|first=William W. |name-list-format=vanc |year=2012|title=German History in Modern Times: Four Lives of the Nation|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=313}} 8. ^DIETRICH EICHHOLTZ "»Generalplan Ost« zur Versklavung osteuropäischer Völker" 9. ^Madajczyk, Czesław. "Die Besatzungssysteme der Achsenmächte. Versuch einer komparatistischen Analyse." Studia Historiae Oeconomicae vol. 14 (1980): pp. 105-122 [https://books.google.com/books?id=IfHaDYVfGlgC&pg=PA316&lpg=PA316&dq=madajczyk+czes%C5%82aw+1988&source=web&ots=Brr4KV1jRU&sig=dJSVB5QxQ302t1K9_3QQLIpAjP8] in Hitler's War in the East, 1941-1945: A Critical Assessment by Gerd R. Ueberschär and Rolf-Dieter Müller [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1571810684] 10. ^{{Cite book |last=Berenbaum |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Berenbaum |year=2006 |title=The World Must Know |others=Contributors: Arnold Kramer, USHMM |edition=2nd |publisher= USHMM / Johns Hopkins Univ Press |isbn=978-0801883583 |ref=harv }} P. 93. 11. ^{{cite web | last =Hemme | first =Amira Lapidot | title =Jewish History of Mykolayiv (Nikolayev), Kherson Gubernia | publisher =JewishGen | date =2012 | url =http://kehilalinks.jewishgen.org/mykolayiv/history%20&%20geography.htm | accessdate = 29 December 2014 | archiveurl = | archivedate = }} 12. ^"President Putin Has Called Ukraine a Hotbed of Anti-Semites. It's Not.". National Geographic. May 30, 2014 13. ^Nazi-hunters give low grades to 13 countries, including Ukraine, Kyiv Post (January 12, 2011) 14. ^{{cite book|last1=Arad|first1=Yitzhak|authorlink1=Yitzhak Arad|title=The Holocaust in the Soviet Union|date=2009|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=0-8032-2270-X|page=211|url={{Google books|DqAb5tY4Ai8C|page=211|plainurl=yes}}}} 15. ^Germans must remember the truth about Ukraine – for their own sake, Eurozine (7 July 2017) 16. ^{{cite journal |last1=Lower |first1=Wendy |title=Introduction: the Holocaust in Ukraine |journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies |url=https://academic.oup.com/hgs/pages/the_holocaust_in_Ukraine |language=en|page=3}} 17. ^"Mobile Killing Squads". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) 18. ^{{cite book|last=Petelycky|first=Stefan|title=Into Auschwitz, for Ukraine|url=http://www.uccla.ca/In%20Auschwitz-Petelycky.pdf|year=1999|publisher=Kashtan Press|isbn=978-1-896354-16-3}} 19. ^{{cite web|title=Names and Numbers of Righteous Among the Nations - per Country & Ethnic Origin, as of January 1, 2015|url=http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp|website=Yad Vashem|accessdate=12 December 2015}} 20. ^{{cite book|last=Snyder|first=Timothy|title=Black Earth: The Holocaust as History and Warning|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rnDWBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT328|year=2015|publisher=Crown/Archetype|isbn=978-1-101-90346-9|page=328}} External links
9 : The Holocaust by country|The Holocaust in Ukraine|Jewish Ukrainian history|Military history of Ukraine during World War II|Reichskommissariat Ukraine|World War II prisoners of war massacres|Eastern Front (World War II)|Ukraine in World War II|1940s in Ukraine |
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