请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Monosodium glutamate
释义

  1. History

  2. Society and culture

  3. {{anchor|Usage}}Use

  4. Safety

     Chinese restaurant syndrome 

  5. Production

  6. Chemical properties

     Regulations  United States  Australia and New Zealand  Pakistan  Names  Chemical names and identifiers  On packaging  Trade names 

  7. See also

  8. References

  9. External links

{{About|the chemical compound|its use in food |glutamate flavoring|glutamic acid in general|glutamic acid}}{{redirect-distinguish|Aji-no-moto|Ajinomoto}}{{chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| Name = Monosodium glutamate
| verifiedrevid = 477163037
| ImageFile = Monosodiumglutamate.svg
| ImageSize = 200px
| ImageAlt = Chemical composition of monosodium glutamate
| ImageFile1 = Monosodium_glutamate_spacefill.png
| ImageFile2 = Monosodium glutamate crystals.jpg
| ImageSize2 = 200px
| IUPACName=Sodium 2-aminopentanedioate
| OtherNames=
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = C3C196L9FG
| InChI = 1/C5H9NO4.Na/c6-3(5(9)10)1-2-4(7)8;/h3H,1-2,6H2,(H,7,8)(H,9,10);/q;+1/p-1/t3-;/m0./s1
| InChIKey = LPUQAYUQRXPFSQ-SYBSRVMOBZ
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C5H9NO4.Na/c6-3(5(9)10)1-2-4(7)8;/h3H,1-2,6H2,(H,7,8)(H,9,10);/q;+1/p-1/t3-;/m0./s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = LPUQAYUQRXPFSQ-DFWYDOINSA-M
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CASNo=142-47-2
| EC_number = 205-538-1
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 76943
| PubChem=85314
| SMILES = [Na+].O=C([O-])[C@@H](N)CCC(=O)O
}}
|Section2={{Chembox Properties
| Formula=C5H8NO4Na
| MolarMass=169.111 g/mol (anhydrous), 187.127 g/mol (monohydrate)
| Appearance=White crystalline powder
| Density=
| MeltingPtC=232
| BoilingPt=
| Solubility=740 g/L
}}
|Section3={{Chembox Hazards
| NFPA-H = 0
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 0
| MainHazards=
| LD50 = 15800 mg/kg (oral, rat)[1]
| FlashPt=
| AutoignitionPt =
}}Monosodium glutamate (MSG, also known as sodium glutamate) is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, one of the most abundant naturally occurring non-essential amino acids.[2] Glutamic acid is found naturally in tomatoes, grapes, cheese, mushrooms and other foods.[3][4]

MSG is used in the food industry as a flavor enhancer with an umami taste that intensifies the meaty, savory flavor of food, as naturally occurring glutamate does in foods such as stews and meat soups.[5][6] It was first prepared in 1908 by Japanese biochemist Kikunae Ikeda, who was trying to isolate and duplicate the savory taste of kombu, an edible seaweed used as a base for many Japanese soups. MSG as a flavor enhancer balances, blends, and rounds the perception of other tastes.[7][8]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has given MSG its generally recognized as safe (GRAS) designation.[9] A popular misconception is that MSG can cause headaches and other feelings of discomfort, known as "Chinese restaurant syndrome," but double-blind tests fail to find evidence of such a reaction.[9][10][11] The European Union classifies it as a food additive permitted in certain foods and subject to quantitative limits. MSG has the HS code 29224220 and the E number E621.[12]

{{TOC limit|3}}

History

Glutamic acid was discovered and identified in 1866 by the German chemist Karl Heinrich Ritthausen, who treated wheat gluten (for which it was named) with sulfuric acid.[13] Kikunae Ikeda of Tokyo Imperial University isolated glutamic acid as a taste substance in 1908 from the seaweed Laminaria japonica (kombu) by aqueous extraction and crystallization, calling its taste umami.[14][15] Ikeda noticed that dashi, the Japanese broth of katsuobushi and kombu, had a unique taste not yet scientifically described (not sweet, salty, sour, or bitter).[14] To verify that ionized glutamate was responsible for umami, he studied the taste properties of glutamate salts: calcium, potassium, ammonium, and magnesium glutamate. All these salts elicited umami and a metallic taste due to the other minerals. Of them, sodium glutamate was the most soluble, most palatable, and easiest to crystallize.{{Citation needed|date=August 2014}} Ikeda called his product "monosodium glutamate", and submitted a patent to produce MSG;[16] the Suzuki brothers began commercial production of MSG in 1909 as {{nihongo|Aji-no-moto|{{linktext|味の素}}||"essence of taste"}}.[17][18][19]

Society and culture

It has been suggested that a fear of MSG may reflect anti-Asian racism, with MSG being seen as an alien arrival in Western cooking, likely to be dangerous.[20][21][22] Food critic Jeffrey Steingarten argued that fear of MSG should be seen as a Western-centric mindset, lacking awareness of its common use in Far Eastern cooking without apparent problems: "If MSG is a problem, why doesn't everyone in China have a headache?"[23][24]

{{anchor|Usage}}Use

Pure MSG is reported to not have a highly pleasant taste until it is combined with a savory aroma.[25] The basic sensory function of MSG is attributed to its ability to enhance savory taste-active compounds when added in the proper concentration.[7] The optimum concentration varies by food; in clear soup, the pleasure score rapidly falls with the addition of more than one gram of MSG per 100 mL.[26]

The sodium content (in mass percent) of MSG, 12%, is about one-third of that in sodium chloride (39%), due to the greater mass of the glutamate counterion.[27] Although other salts of glutamate have been used in low-salt soups, they are less palatable than MSG.[28] "MSG might even promote healthy eating, (food scientist Steve Witherly) hypothesizes, by not only making kale more delicious but also letting you get away with using less salt."[29]

MSG is commonly used and found in stock cubes (Bouillon cube), soups, ramen, gravy, stews, condiments, savoury snacks etc.

The ribonucleotide food additives disodium inosinate (E631) and disodium guanylate (E627), as well as conventional salt are usually used with monosodium glutamate-containing ingredients as they seem to have a synergistic effect. "Super salt" is mixture of 9 parts salt, to one part MSG and 0.1 parts disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate.[30]

Safety

MSG is safe to consume.[31] A popular belief is that MSG can cause headaches and other feelings of discomfort but double-blind tests have found no good evidence to support this.[10] MSG has been used for more than 100 years to season food, with a number of studies conducted on its safety. Consumption and manufacture of high-salt and high-glutamate foods, which contain both sodium and glutamate, stretch back far longer, with evidence of cheese manufacture as early as 5,500 BCE.[32] International and national bodies governing food additives currently consider MSG safe for human consumption as a flavor enhancer.[33] Under normal conditions, humans can metabolize relatively large quantities of glutamate, which is naturally produced in the gut in the course of protein hydrolysis. The median lethal dose (LD50) is between 15 and 18 g/kg body weight in rats and mice, respectively, five times the LD50 of sodium chloride (3 g/kg in rats). The use of MSG as a food additive and the natural level of glutamic acid in foods are not toxicological concerns in humans.[33]

A 1995 report from the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) for the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) concluded that MSG is safe when "eaten at customary levels" and, although a subgroup of otherwise-healthy individuals develop an MSG symptom complex when exposed to 3 g of MSG in the absence of food, MSG as a cause has not been established because the symptom reports are anecdotal.[34]

According to the report, no data support the role of glutamate in chronic disease. A controlled, double-blind, multiple-location clinical trial failed to demonstrate a relationship between the MSG symptom complex and actual MSG consumption. No statistical association has been demonstrated, and the few responses were inconsistent. No symptoms were observed when MSG was administered with food.[40][35][36][37]

Adequately controlling for experimental bias includes a double-blind, placebo-controlled experimental design (DBPC) and administration by capsule, because of the unique aftertaste of glutamates.[36] In a study by Tarasoff and Kelly (1993), 71 fasting participants were given 5 g of MSG and then a standard breakfast. One reaction (to the placebo, in a self-identified MSG-sensitive individual) occurred.[40] A study by Geha et al. (2000) tested the reaction of 130 subjects with a reported sensitivity to MSG. Multiple DBPC trials were performed, with subjects exhibiting at least two symptoms continuing. Two people out of the 130 responded to all four challenges. Because of the low prevalence, the researchers concluded that a response to MSG was not reproducible.[38]

Studies exploring MSG's role in obesity have yielded mixed results.[39][40]

Although several studies have investigated anecdotal links between MSG and asthma, current evidence does not support a causal association.[41] Since glutamates are important neurotransmitters in the human brain, playing a key role in learning and memory, ongoing neurological studies indicate a need for further research.[42]

Chinese restaurant syndrome

A hypothetical MSG symptom complex, named "Chinese restaurant syndrome", attracted attention in the period after 1968, when Robert Ho Man Kwok reported symptoms he felt after an American-Chinese meal. Kwok suggested possible reasons for his symptoms, including alcohol (from cooking with wine), sodium, and MSG; however, a number of symptoms have become associated with MSG.[43]

The perpetuation of the negative image of MSG through the so-called Chinese Restaurant Syndrome has been attributed to xenophobic or racist biases,[44][45][46][47][48][49] with people specifically targeting Asian cuisine whereas the widespread usage of MSG in western consumer goods (e.g. in processed food) doesn't generate the same stigma.[50]

Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) MSG technical report concludes, "There is no convincing evidence that MSG is a significant factor in causing systemic reactions resulting in severe illness or mortality. The studies conducted to date on Chinese restaurant syndrome (CRS) have largely failed to demonstrate a causal association with MSG. Symptoms resembling those of CRS may be provoked in a clinical setting in small numbers of individuals by the administration of large doses of MSG without food. However, such effects are neither persistent nor serious and are likely to be attenuated when MSG is consumed with food. In terms of more serious adverse effects such as the triggering of bronchospasm in asthmatic individuals, the evidence does not indicate that MSG is a significant trigger factor."[51][52]

However, the FSANZ MSG report says that although no data are available on average MSG consumption in Australia and New Zealand, "data from the United Kingdom indicates an average intake of 590 mg/day, with extreme users (97.5th percentile consumers) consuming 2330 mg/day" (Rhodes et al. 1991). In a highly seasoned restaurant meal, intakes as high as 5000 mg or more may be possible (Yang et al. 1997). When very large doses of MSG (>5 g MSG in a bolus dose) are ingested, plasma glutamate concentration will significantly increase. However, the concentration typically returns to normal within two hours. In general, foods providing metabolizable carbohydrate significantly attenuate peak plasma glutamate levels at doses up to 150 mg/kg body weight. Two earlier studies—the 1987 Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) and the 1995 Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB)—concluded, "there may be a small number of unstable asthmatics who respond to doses of 1.5–2.5 g of MSG in the absence of food". The FASEB evaluation concluded, "sufficient evidence exists to indicate some individuals may experience manifestations of CRS when exposed to a ≥3 g bolus dose of MSG in the absence of food".[51]

Production

MSG has been produced by three methods: hydrolysis of vegetable proteins with hydrochloric acid to disrupt peptide bonds (1909–1962); direct chemical synthesis with acrylonitrile (1962–1973), and bacterial fermentation (the current method).[17] Wheat gluten was originally used for hydrolysis because it contains more than 30 g of glutamate and glutamine in 100 g of protein. As demand for MSG increased, chemical synthesis and fermentation were studied. The polyacrylic fiber industry began in Japan during the mid-1950s, and acrylonitrile was adopted as a base material to synthesize MSG.[53]

Currently (2016), most global MSG is produced by bacterial fermentation in a process similar to making vinegar or yogurt. Sodium is added later, for neutralization. During fermentation, Corynebacterium species, cultured with ammonia and carbohydrates from sugar beets, sugarcane, tapioca or molasses, excrete amino acids into a culture broth from which L-glutamate is isolated. The Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Company developed industrial fermentation to produce L-glutamate.[54]

The conversion yield and production rate (from sugars to glutamate) continues to improve in the industrial production of MSG, keeping up with demand.[17] The product, after filtration, concentration, acidification, and crystallization, is glutamate, sodium, and water.

Chemical properties

The compound is usually available as the monohydrate, a white, odorless, crystalline powder. The solid contains separate sodium cations {{chem|Na|+}} and glutamate anions in zwitterionic form, −OOC-CH({{chem|N|H|3|+}})-({{chem|C|H|2}})2-COO−.[55] In solution it dissociates into glutamate and sodium ions.

MSG is freely soluble in water, but it is not hygroscopic and is insoluble in common organic solvents (such as ether).[56] It is generally stable under food-processing conditions. MSG does not break down during cooking and, like other amino acids, will exhibit a Maillard reaction (browning) in the presence of sugars at very high temperatures.[18]

Regulations

United States

MSG is one of several forms of glutamic acid found in foods, in large part because glutamic acid (an amino acid) is pervasive in nature. Glutamic acid and its salts may be present in a variety of other additives, including hydrolyzed vegetable protein, autolyzed yeast, hydrolyzed yeast, yeast extract, soy extracts, and protein isolate, which must be specifically labeled. Since 1998, MSG cannot be included in the term "spices and flavorings". However, the term "natural flavor" is used by the food industry for glutamic acid (chemically similar to MSG, lacking only the sodium ion). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not require disclosure of components and amounts of "natural flavor."[57]

The FDA considers labels such as "no MSG" or "no added MSG" misleading if the food has ingredients which are sources of free glutamate, such as hydrolyzed protein. In 1993, it proposed adding "contains glutamate" to the common names of certain hydrolyzed proteins with substantial amounts of glutamate.{{Citation needed|date=January 2014}}

Australia and New Zealand

Standard 1.2.4 of the Australia and New Zealand Food Standards Code requires MSG to be labeled in packaged foods. The label must have the food-additive class name (e.g. "flavour enhancer"), followed by the name of the additive ("MSG") or its International Numbering System (INS) number, 621.[58]

Pakistan

The Punjab Food Authority banned Chinese salt, which contains MSG, from being used in food products in the Punjab Province of Pakistan in January 2018.[59]

Names

The following are alternative names for MSG:[1][60][61]

Chemical names and identifiers

  • Monosodium glutamate or sodium glutamate
  • Sodium 2-aminopentanedioate
  • Glutamic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate
  • L-Glutamic acid, monosodium salt, monohydrate
  • L-Monosodium glutamate monohydrate
  • Monosodium L-glutamate monohydrate
  • MSG monohydrate
  • Sodium glutamate monohydrate
  • UNII-W81N5U6R6U

On packaging

  • Flavour enhancer E621

Trade names

  • Accent, produced by B&G Foods Inc., Parsippany, New Jersey, US[62][63]
  • AJI-NO-MOTO, produced by Ajinomoto, 26 countries, head office Japan[64][65]
  • Tasting Powder
  • Ve-Tsin by Tien Chu Ve-Tsin
  • Sazón, distributed by Goya Foods, Jersey City, NJ[66]

See also

{{Columns-list|colwidth=16em|
  • Acceptable daily intake
  • Adenosine monophosphate
  • Ajinomoto
  • Disodium glutamate
  • Disodium inosinate
  • Garum
  • Glutamate flavoring
  • Glutamic acid
  • Guanosine monophosphate
  • Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase
  • Inosinic acid
  • Kikunae Ikeda
  • Monopotassium glutamate
  • Murri (condiment)
  • Ribonucleoside
  • Tien Chu Ve-Tsin
  • Umami

}}

References

1. ^1 {{cite web |title =Monosodium glutamate NF |url=http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/6106-04-3 |website=NLM.NIH.gov |publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine, ChemIDplus |accessdate=August 11, 2014}}
2. ^{{cite journal |author=Ninomiya K, Technical Committee, Umami Manufacturers Association of Japan |title=Natural occurrence |journal=Food Reviews International |volume=14 |issue=2 & 3 |pages=177–211 |year=1998 |doi=10.1080/87559129809541157}}
3. ^{{cite web|title=FDA Q&A on MSG|url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm328728.htm|website=fda.gov|accessdate=5 March 2016}}
4. ^{{cite web|title=Monosodium glutamate (MSG) - Questions and Answers|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/food-safety/food-additives/monosodium-glutamate-questions-answers.html|website=Government of Canada|accessdate=20 May 2018}}
5. ^{{cite journal |author=Ikeda K |title=New seasonings |journal=Chem Senses |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=847–849 |date=November 2002 |pmid= 12438213 |doi=10.1093/chemse/27.9.847}}
6. ^{{cite web|last1=Hayward|first1=Tim|title=OMG I love MSG|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/45578b88-ff2d-11e4-84b2-00144feabdc0.html#axzz424XCOJsY|website=Financial Times|publisher=Nikkei|accessdate=5 March 2016}}
7. ^1 {{cite journal |author=Loliger J |title=Function and importance of Glutamate for Savory Foods |journal=Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=4s Suppl |pages=915s–920s |date=April 2000 |pmid=10736352|doi=10.1093/jn/130.4.915S }}
8. ^{{cite journal |author=Yamaguchi S |title=Basic properties of umami and effects on humans |journal=Physiology & Behavior |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=833–841 |date=May 1991 |pmid=1679557|doi=10.1016/0031-9384(91)90192-Q}}
9. ^1 {{cite web|title=Questions and Answers on Monosodium glutamate (MSG) |url=http://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm328728.htm |publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |date=November 19, 2012 |accessdate =February 4, 2014}}
10. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Obayashi|first1=Y|last2=Nagamura|first2=Y|title=Does monosodium glutamate really cause headache? : a systematic review of human studies|journal=The Journal of Headache and Pain|date=17 May 2016|volume=17|page=54|doi=10.1186/s10194-016-0639-4|pmid=27189588|pmc=4870486}}
11. ^{{Cite AV media|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/msg-ingredients-side-effects-2014-6|first=Will|last=Wei|date=16 June 2014|title=The Truth Behind Notorious Flavor Enhancer MSG|work=Business Insider|type=Podcast|accessdate=13 November 2017}}
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist |title=Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers |publisher=Food.gov.uk |date=2010-11-26 |accessdate=2012-01-30}}
13. ^{{cite book |author= R.H.A. Plimmer |editor1=R.H.A. Plimmer |editor2=F.G. Hopkins |title= The Chemical Constitution of the Protein |url= https://books.google.com/?id=7JM8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA114 |accessdate= June 3, 2012 |edition= 2nd |series= Monographs on biochemistry |volume= Part I. Analysis |origyear= 1908 |year= 1912 |publisher= Longmans, Green and Co. |location= London|page= 114}}
14. ^1 {{cite journal|author=Lindemann, Bernd, Universität des Saarlandes, Medical Faculty, Physiology, Germany; Ogiwara Yoko, Ajinomoto Co., Inc., European Head Office, France; Ninomiya, Yuzo, Section Oral Function and Neurobiology, Department of Regulatory Oral Science, Kyushu University Graduate School, Japan. |title=The discovery of umami|journal=Chem Senses |volume=27 |issue=9 |pages=843–4 |date=November 2002 |pmid=12438211 |doi=10.1093/chemse/27.9.843}}
15. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2005/jul/10/foodanddrink.features3|title=If MSG is so bad for you, why doesn't everyone in Asia have a headache?|first=Alex|last=Renton|date=10 July 2005|website=the Guardian}}
16. ^Ikeda K (1908). "A production method of seasoning mainly consists of salt of L-glutamic acid". Japanese Patent 14804.
17. ^1 2 {{cite journal |author=Sano, Chiaki, Technology and Engineering Center, Ajinomoto Co, Japan. |title=History of glutamate production|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=728S–732S|date=September 2009 |pmid=19640955 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462F }}
18. ^1 {{cite journal |author=Yamaguchi, Shizuko, Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan; Ninomiya, Kumiko, Technical Committee, Umami Manufacturers Association of Japan. |title=What is umami?|journal=Food Reviews International |volume=14|issue=2 & 3 |pages=123–138 |year=1998 |doi=10.1080/87559129809541155}}
19. ^{{cite journal |author=Kurihara K|title=Glutamate: from discovery as a food flavor to role as a basic taste (umami)?|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=719S–722S|date=September 2009 |pmid=19640953 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462D }}
20. ^{{cite web|last1=Mahoney|first1=John|title=The Notorious MSG's Unlikely Formula For Success|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/johnmahoney/the-notorious-msgs-unlikely-formula-for-success|website=BuzzFeed|accessdate=12 November 2014}}
21. ^{{cite web|last1=Dickerman|first1=Sarah|title=Could MSG make a comeback?|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/food/2006/05/could_msg_make_a_comeback.html|website=Slate magazine}}
22. ^{{cite web|last1=Ibanga|first1=Imaeyen|title=China food scare: a dash of racism|url=http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Health/story?id=3413105|website=ABC News|accessdate=12 November 2014}}
23. ^{{cite web|last1=Haber|first1=Barbara|title=Life on the Culinary Edge|url=http://harvardmagazine.com/2003/01/life-on-the-culinary-edg.html|website=Harvard Magazine|accessdate=12 November 2014}}
24. ^{{cite web|last1=Renton|first1=Alex | authorlink=Alex Renton |title=If MSG is so bad for you, why doesn't everyone in Asia have a headache?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2005/jul/10/foodanddrink.features3|website=The Guardian|accessdate=12 November 2014}}
25. ^{{cite journal|author=Rolls, Edmund T., Oxford Centre for Computational Neuroscience, United Kingdom, Supported by the Medical Research Council and in part by the International Glutamate Technical Committee, a nongovernmental organization funded by industrial producers and users of glutamate in food. |title=Functional neuroimaging of umami taste: what makes umami pleasant? |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=804S–813S|date=September 2009 |pmid=19571217 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2009.27462R }}
26. ^{{cite book|title=Umami: a basic taste|veditors=Kawamura Y, Kare MR |publisher=Marcel Dekker Inc.| location=New York, NY|year=1987}}
27. ^{{cite journal |author =Yamaguchi, Shizuko, Central Research Laboratories, Ajinomoto Co., Japan; Takahashi, Chikahito, Central Research Laboratories, Ajinomoto Co., Japan. |title=Interactions of monosodium glutamate and sodium chloride on saltiness and palatability of a clear soup |journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=82–85|date=January 1984|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.1984.tb13675.x }}
28. ^{{cite journal |author=Ball P, Woodward D, Beard T, Shoobridge A, Ferrier M. Sponsorship: We acknowledge the financial support of the International Glutamate Technical Committee (IGTC), a nongovernmental organization funded by industrial producers and users of glutamate in food. |title=Calcium diglutamate improves taste characteristics of lower-salt soup|journal= Eur J Clin Nutr|volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=519–23|date=June 2002 |pmid=12032651|doi=10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601343 }}
29. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/cooking-with-msg-supersalt-2017-2|title=Everyone should cook with MSG, says food scientist|last=Lubin|first=Gus|website=Business Insider|date=2 Feb 2017|accessdate=27 Jan 2019|language=en}}
30. ^https://www.businessinsider.com/cooking-with-msg-supersalt-2017-2?r=US&IR=T
31. ^{{cite web|url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-msg-got-a-bad-rap-flawed-science-and-xenophobia/|title=How MSG Got A Bad Rap: Flawed Science And Xenophobia|first=Anna Maria|last=Barry-Jester|date=8 January 2016|publisher=}}
32. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nature.com/news/art-of-cheese-making-is-7-500-years-old-1.12020|title=Art of cheese-making is 7,500 years old|publisher=Nature|date=December 12, 2012 }}
33. ^1 {{cite journal |author=Walker R, Lupien JR, School of Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, UK, and Food and Nutrition Division, FAO of the United Nations, Italy. |title=The safety evaluation of monosodium glutamate|journal=Journal of Nutrition|volume=130 |issue=4S Suppl |pages=1049S–52S|date=April 2000 |pmid=10736380 |doi=10.1093/jn/130.4.1049S}}
34. ^{{cite journal|vauthors=Raiten DJ, Talbot JM, Fisher KD | title = Executive Summary from the Report: Analysis of Adverse Reactions to Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) --no summary available, 8/11/2014.| journal = Journal of Nutrition| volume = 125| issue= 6| pages = 2891S–2906S| year = 1996| pmid=7472671| doi = 10.1093/jn/125.11.2891S}}
35. ^{{cite journal| author = Geha RS| title = Review of alleged reaction to monosodium glutamate and outcome of a multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled study| journal = J. Nutr.| volume = 130| issue = 4S Suppl| pages = 1058S–62S| date = April 2000| pmid = 10736382| doi = 10.1093/jn/130.4.1058S| url = http://jn.nutrition.org/content/130/4/1058.long| name-list-format = vanc| author2 = Beiser A| author3 = Ren C| display-authors = 3| last4 = Patterson| first4 = R| last5 = Greenberger| first5 = PA| last6 = Grammer| first6 = LC| last7 = Ditto| first7 = AM| last8 = Harris| first8 = KE| last9 = Shaughnessy| first9 = MA| deadurl = yes| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120114164740/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/130/4/1058.long| archivedate = 2012-01-14| df = }}
36. ^1 {{cite journal|author1=Tarasoff L. |author2=Kelly M.F. | title = Monosodium L-glutamate: a double-blind study and review| journal = Food Chem. Toxicol.| volume = 31| issue = 12| pages = 1019–35| year = 1993| pmid = 8282275| doi = 10.1016/0278-6915(93)90012-N}}
37. ^{{cite journal| author = Walker R| title = The significance of excursions above the ADI. Case study: monosodium glutamate| journal = Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol.| volume = 30| issue = 2 Pt 2| pages = S119–21| date=October 1999| pmid = 10597625| doi = 10.1006/rtph.1999.1337| url = }}
38. ^{{cite journal|author1=Williams, A. N. |author2=Woessner, K.M.| title = Monosodium glutamate 'allergy': menace or myth?| journal = Clinical & Experimental Allergy| volume = 39| pages = 640–6| year = 2009| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2009.03221.x|pmid=19389112| issue = 5 }}
39. ^{{cite journal|pmid=20370941|year=2010|last1=Shi|first1=Z|last2=Luscombe-Marsh|first2=ND|last3=Wittert|first3=GA|last4=Yuan|first4=B|last5=Dai|first5=Y|last6=Pan|first6=X|last7=Taylor|first7=AW|title=Monosodium glutamate is not associated with obesity or a greater prevalence of weight gain over 5 years: Findings from the Jiangsu Nutrition Study of Chinese adults|volume=104|issue=3|pages=457–63|doi=10.1017/S0007114510000760|journal=The British Journal of Nutrition}}
40. ^{{cite news |author= Nicholas bakalar |title= Nutrition: MSG Use Is Linked to Obesity |publisher= The New York Times |quote= Consumption of monosodium glutamate, or MSG, the widely used food additive, may increase the likelihood of being overweight, a new study says. |date= August 25, 2008 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/26/health/nutrition/26nutr.html |accessdate= 2010-11-10}}
41. ^{{cite journal| author = Stevenson, D. D.| title = Monosodium glutamate and asthma| journal = J. Nutr.| volume = 130| pages = 1067S–73S| year = 2000| pmid = 10736384| issue = 4S Suppl| doi = 10.1093/jn/130.4.1067S}}
42. ^{{cite news |author1=Nicholas J. Maragakis, MD |author2=Jeffrey D. Rothstein, MD |title= Glutamate Transporters in Neurologic Disease |date= March 2001 |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=365–370 |url= http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=778622 |accessdate= 2015-01-17}}
43. ^1 2 {{cite journal| author = Freeman, Matthew, CNP, mph, Clinical Instructor (Adult Nurse Practitioner), Ohio State University. He reviewed 40 years of documents on PubMed, Medline, Lexis-Nexus, and Infotrac, and concluded there is no consistent clinical data to support the belief that MSG can elicit a headache, and there is no consistent evidence to suggest that individuals may be uniquely sensitive to MSG.| title = Reconsidering the effects of monosodium glutamate: A literature review| journal = Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners| volume = 18| pages = 482–6| year = 2006| doi = 10.1111/j.1745-7599.2006.00160.x| pmid=16999713| issue = 10}}
44. ^{{cite journal |last1=LeMesurier |first1=Jennifer L. |title=Uptaking Race: Genre, MSG, and Chinese Dinner |journal=Poroi |date=8 February 2017 |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.13008/2151-2957.1253 | quote=Introduction: ‘Chinese Restaurant Syndrome’ as Rhetorical [...] Finally, I trace how the journalistic uptakes of this discussion, in only taking up certain medical phrases and terms, reproduce the tacit racism of this boundary policing while avowing the neutrality of medical authority.}}
45. ^{{cite web |last1=DeJesus |first1=Erin |title=Recapping Anthony Bourdain 'Parts Unknown' in Sichuan |url=https://www.eater.com/2016/10/16/13278532/anthony-bourdain-parts-unknown-sichuan-china-recap |website=Eater |publisher=Vox Media |date=16 October 2016}} See also {{cite web |title=Bourdain, off the cuff: Sichuan |url=https://explorepartsunknown.com/sichuan/bourdain-off-the-cuff-sichuan/ |website=Explore Parts Unknown |publisher=CNN |accessdate= 14 December 2018|quote=[On MSG]: “You know what causes Chinese-restaurant syndrome? Racism. ‘Ooh, I have a headache, must have been the Chinese guy.’”}}
46. ^{{cite web |last1=Barry-Jester |first1=Anna Maria |title=How MSG Got A Bad Rap: Flawed Science And Xenophobia |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-msg-got-a-bad-rap-flawed-science-and-xenophobia/ |website=FiveThirtyEight |date=8 January 2016|quote=That MSG causes health problems may have thrived on racially charged biases from the outset. Ian Mosby, a food historian, wrote in a 2009 paper titled “‘That Won-Ton Soup Headache’: The Chinese Restaurant Syndrome, MSG and the Making of American Food, 1968-1980” that fear of MSG in Chinese food is part of the U.S.’s long history of viewing the “exotic” cuisine of Asia as dangerous or dirty.}}
47. ^{{cite web |title=Why Do People Freak Out About MSG in Chinese Food?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sm8Yx-gWlMs |website=AJ+ (on YouTube) |publisher=Al Jazeera Media Network |date=14 August 2018}}
48. ^{{cite web |last1=Blythman |first1=Joanna |title=Chinese restaurant syndrome: has MSG been unfairly demonised? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/may/21/chinese-restaurant-syndrome-has-msg-been-unfairly-demonised |website=The Guardian |date=21 May 2018|quote=Although Chang doesn’t use MSG in his kitchens, he has defended its use, telling a high-level meeting of top chefs that Chinese restaurant syndrome is nothing more than a “cultural construct”. That is a polite way of saying that avoidance of MSG is an expression of western ignorance, or worse, racism, drawing on stereotypes of Asian countries as dangerous or dirty.}}
49. ^{{cite web |last1=Geiling |first1=Natasha |title=It's the Umami, Stupid. Why the Truth About MSG is So Easy to Swallow |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/its-the-umami-stupid-why-the-truth-about-msg-is-so-easy-to-swallow-180947626/ |website=Smithsonian |date=8 November 2013|quote=Everyone knows this connection, and probably associates MSG use in America most heavily with Chinese restaurants–thanks in large part to the absurdly racist name for MSG sensitivity “Chinese Restaurant Syndrome.”}}
50. ^{{cite web |title=Why Do People Freak Out About MSG in Chinese Food?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sm8Yx-gWlMs |website=AJ+ (on YouTube) |publisher=Al Jazeera Media Network |date=14 August 2018 |time=0:00-1:00m and 5:30-8:30m}}
51. ^1 {{cite book|title=MONOSODIUM GLUTAMATE, A Safety Assessment, TECHNICAL REPORT SERIES NO. 20 |url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/publications/Documents/MSG%20Technical%20Report.doc |website=FoodStandards.gov.au |publisher=Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Health Minister Chair, Peter Dutton MP |date=June 2003 |accessdate=January 17, 2015 |isbn=978-0642345202 |issn=1448-3017}}
52. ^{{cite web|title=Monosodium glutamate search |url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/Search/pages/results.aspx?k=Monosodium+glutamate|website=FoodStandards.gov.au |publisher=Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Health Minister Chair, Peter Dutton MP |accessdate=August 13, 2014}}
53. ^{{cite journal |author=Yoshida T, Ajinomoto Co., Planning and Development Department, Japan. |title=Industrial manufacture of optically active glutamic acid through total synthesis|journal=Chem Ing Tech|volume=42 |pages=641–644 |year=1970 |doi=10.1002/cite.330420912 |issue=9–10}}
54. ^{{cite journal |author=Kinoshita Shukuo, Tokyo Research Laboratory, Kyowa Fermentation Industry Company; Udaka, Shigezo; Shimamoto, Masakazu. |title =Studies on amino acid fermentation. Part I. Production of L-glutamic acid by various microorganisms |journal=J Gen Appl Microbiol |volume=3 |pages=193–205|year=1957 |doi=10.2323/jgam.3.193 |issue=3}}
55. ^Chiaki SANO, Nobuya NAGASHIMA, Tetsuya KAWAKITA, Yoichi IITAKA (1989), "Crystal and Molecular Structures of Monosodium L-Glutamate Monohydrate". Analytical Sciences, volume 5, issue 1, pages 121-122. {{doi|10.2116/analsci.5.121}}
56. ^{{cite book|title=Principles of Biochemistry |editor=Win. C.|publisher=Brown Pub Co.| location=Boston, MA|year=1995}}
57. ^{{cite web |title=CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Vol 6, Part 501, Subpart B—Specific Animal Food Labeling Requirements |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=501.22 |website=FDA.gov |publisher=U.S. Food and Drug Administration |accessdate=August 13, 2014}}
58. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/foodstandards/foodstandardscode/standard124labelling4231.cfm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821130741/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/foodstandards/foodstandardscode/standard124labelling4231.cfm|archivedate=2010-08-21 |title=Standard 1.2.4 Labelling of Ingredients |work=Food Standards Code |publisher=Food Standards Australia New Zealand |accessdate=May 15, 2010}}
59. ^{{cite web|title=Punjab Food Authority bans Chinese salt after scientific panel finds it hazardous for health|url=https://www.dawn.com/news/1383111/punjab-food-authority-bans-chinese-salt-after-scientific-panel-finds-it-hazardous-for-health|website=Dawn|accessdate=15 January 2018}}
60. ^{{cite web |last1 =Singh, K. K. |last2 =Desai, Pinakin, Director |title=Glutamate Chemical |url=http://www.triveniinterchem.com/glutamate.html|website=TriveniInterChem.com |publisher=Riveni InterChem of Triveni Chemicals, manufacturer & supplier of industrial chemicals, India |accessdate=August 11, 2014}}
61. ^{{cite web |last1 =Desmo Exports Limited, Chemical Manufacturers and Importers of India |title=Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) |url=http://desmoexports.com/products/msg.htm |website=DesmoExports.com |publisher=Desmo Exports |date=2011 |accessdate=August 11, 2014}}
62. ^{{cite web|title=Accent Flavor Enhancer|url=http://www.accentflavor.com/products/accent-flavor-enhancer/|website=AccentFlavor.com |publisher=B&G Foods, Inc. |accessdate=August 11, 2014}}
63. ^{{cite web|title=B&G Foods, Incorporated|url=http://www.grocery.com/bg-foods-incorporated/|website=Grocery.com|accessdate=August 13, 2014}}
64. ^{{cite web|title=Monosodium glutamate(MSG)|url=http://www.ajinomoto.com/features/aji-no-moto/en/truth/ |website=Umami Global Website |publisher=AJINOMOTO CO., INC. |accessdate=30 Oct 2016}}
65. ^{{cite web|title=To Greet the Next 100 Years (Corporate Guide) |url=http://www.ajinomoto.com/en/aboutus/pdf/ajinomoto_profile.pdf?scid=av_ot_pc_comeheadbp_aboutus_ajinomoto_profile |publisher=AJINOMOTO CO., INC. |accessdate=13 Aug 2014}}
66. ^Sazon Seasoning : Substitutes, Ingredients, Equivalents. GourmetSleuth. Retrieved on 2016-11-04.

External links

{{commons category|Monosodium glutamate}}{{wiktionary|monosodium glutamate symptom complex|Chinese food syndrome|Chinese restaurant syndrome|CRS}}
  • The Facts on Monosodium Glutamate (EUFIC)
{{Consumer Food Safety}}{{Authority control}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Monosodium Glutamate}}

7 : E-number additives|Flavor enhancers|Food additives|Glutamates|Japanese inventions|Organic sodium salts|Umami enhancers
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/13 13:12:45