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词条 Mugger crocodile
释义

  1. Etymology

  2. Characteristics

  3. Taxonomy

  4. Distribution and habitat

  5. Behaviour and ecology

     Hunting and diet  Tool use  Reproduction  Sympatric crocodilians   Attacks on humans  

  6. Threats

  7. Conservation

      In captivity  

  8. See also

  9. External links

{{pp-semi|small=yes}}{{Speciesbox
| name = Mugger crocodile
| image = Mugger crocodile Crocodylus palustris (2155269175).jpg
| image_caption =
| status = VU
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = [1]
| genus = Crocodylus
| species = palustris
| authority = Lesson, 1831[1]
| range_map = Crocodylus palustris Distribution.png
| range_map_caption = Distribution of mugger crocodile
}}

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), also called marsh crocodile, broad-snouted crocodile and mugger is a crocodilian native to freshwater habitats from southern Iran and Pakistan to the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. It is extinct in Bhutan and Myanmar and has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1982.[1]

It is a medium-sized crocodile that inhabits lakes, rivers, marshes and artificial ponds. Both young and adult mugger crocodiles dig burrows where they retreat when temperature drops below {{convert|5|C}} or exceeds {{convert|38|C}}. Females dig holes in the sand as nesting sites and lay up to 46 eggs during the dry season.[2][3][4] Sex of hatchlings depends on temperature during incubation.[5] It preys on fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. Young feed on insects.[6][7]

It is one of three crocodilians in India, apart from saltwater crocodile (C. porosus) and gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).[8]

Etymology

The Hindi word मगर magar means crocodile.[9]

The Sanskrit word मकर makar refers to both Capricornus and crocodile.[10]

Characteristics

{{multiple image |direction=vertical |image1=croc.png |caption1=Illustration of mugger crocodile skull |image2=Crocodylus palustris teeth.PNG |caption2=Illustration of mugger dentition}}

The mugger crocodile is considered a medium-sized crocodilian, but has the broadest snout among living crocodilians.[4] It has a powerful tail and webbed feet. Its visual, hearing and smelling senses are acute.[2]

Mugger hatchlings are pale olive with black spots. Adults are dark olive to grey or brown. The head is rough without any ridges and large scutes around the neck that is well separated from the back. Scutes usually form four, rarely six longitudinal series and 16 or 17 transverse series. The limbs have keeled scales with serrated fringes on outer edges, and outer toes are extensively webbed. The snout is slightly longer than broad with 19 upper teeth on each side. The symphysis of the lower jaw extends to the level of the fourth or fifth tooth. The premaxillary suture on the palate is nearly straight or curved forwards, and the nasal bones separate the premaxilla above.[11]

Adult female muggers are {{convert|2|to|2.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}} on average, and male muggers {{convert|3|to|3.5|m|ftin|abbr=on}}. They rarely grow up to {{convert|5|m|ftin|abbr=on}}. The largest known muggers measured {{convert|5.63|m|ftin|abbr=on}}.[2] The average size of adult mugger crocodiles in Manghopir Lake was estimated at {{convert|2.89|m|ftin|abbr=on}}, with a weight of around {{convert|100|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.[12] One male mugger caught in Pakistan of about {{convert|3|m|ftin|abbr=on}} weighed {{convert|195|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.[13]

The largest zoological specimen in the British Museum of Natural History measures {{convert|3.7|m|ftin|abbr=on}}.[11]

Taxonomy

Crocodylus palustris was the scientific name used by René Lesson in 1834 who described a type specimen that was caught in the Ganges.[14]

Distribution and habitat

{{multiple image |direction=vertical |image1=Mugger crocodile (Gando) in Chabahar, Iran- by Hadi Karimi.jpg |caption1=Mugger crocodiles in Chabahar County, Iran |image2=Mugger Chitwan.jpg |caption2=A mugger basking in Chitwan National Park, Nepal |image3=WilpattuNationalPark_-_February_2018_-_Mugger_crocodile_(1).jpg |caption3=A mugger in Wilpattu National Park, Sri Lanka |image4=Front View of a Crocodile in the banks of Vashishti River.jpg |caption4=A mugger on the banks of Vashishti River, Maharashtra}}

The mugger crocodile occurs in southern Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka, but is probably extinct in Bangladesh.[1] It inhabits freshwater lakes, rivers and marshes, and prefers slow-moving, shallow water bodies. It is also known to thrive in artificial reservoirs and irrigation canals.[4]

In Iran, the mugger occurs along rivers in Sistan and Baluchestan Provinces along the Iran–Pakistan border.[1] On the Iranian Makran coast near Chabahar lives a population of around 200 mugger crocodiles. Due to human activity and a long drought in the late 1990s and early 2000s, it had been pushed to the brink of extinction. Following several tropical cyclones in 2007 and 2010, much of the habitat of the mugger crocodiles has been restored as formerly dry lakes and hamuns were flooded again.[15]

In Pakistan's Sindh Province, small mugger populations occur in wetlands of Deh Akro 2 and Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuaries, near Chotiari Dam, in the Nara Canal and around Haleji lake.[16][17][18]

In Nepal's Terai, it occurs in wetlands of Shuklaphanta, Bardia National Parks, Ghodaghodi Tal and Chitwan National Parks, and in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve.[19][20][21][22]

In India, it occurs in:

  • Rajasthan along the Chambal, Ken and Son Rivers, and in Ranthambore National Park[23][24]
  • Gujarat along the Vishwamitri River[25]
  • Madhya Pradesh's National Chambal Sanctuary[35][26]
  • Uttarakhand's Rajaji National Park, Corbett Tiger Reserve and Lansdowne Forest Division[27]
  • Uttar Pradesh's Katarniaghat and Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuaries[28]
  • Odisha's Simlipal National Park and along Mahanadi and Sabari Rivers[29][30]
  • Telangana's Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary[24]
  • Maharashtra's Kadavi and Warna Rivers[31]
  • Goa's Salaulim Reservoir, Zuari River and in small lakes[24]
  • Karnakata along Kaveri and Kabini Rivers, in the Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary, Nagarhole National Park and Tungabhadra Reservoir[24]
  • Kerala's Parambikulam Reservoir and Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary[24][32]
  • Tamil Nadu's Moyar River and Amaravathi Reservoir[24]

In Sri Lanka, it occurs in several national parks such as Wilpattu, Yala and Bundala National Parks.[4][33] Between 1991 and 1996, it has been recorded in another 102 localities.[34]

Behaviour and ecology

{{multiple image |direction=vertical |image1=Indian Mugger Crocodile (National Chambal Sanctuary).jpg |caption1=Mugger 'high'-walking in National Chambal Sanctuary, India |image2=17163785991 Jpg (106032341).jpeg |image3=Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris).jpg |caption3=Muggers basking on sand banks}}

The mugger crocodile is a powerful swimmer that uses its tail and hind feet to move forward, change direction and submerge. It belly-walks, with its belly touching ground, at the bottom of waterbodies and on land. During the hot dry season, it walks over land at night to find suitable wetlands and spends most of the day submerged in water. During the cold season it basks on riverbanks, individuals are tolerant of others during this period. Territorial behaviour increases during the mating season.[2]

Like all crocodilians, the mugger crocodile is a thermoconformer and has an optimal body temperature of {{convert|30|to|35|C}} and risks dying of freezing or hyperthermia when exposed to temperatures below {{convert|5|C}} or above {{convert|38|C}}, respectively. It digs burrows to retreat from extreme temperatures and other harsh climatic conditions.[35]

Burrows are between {{convert|0.6|and|6|m|ft|abbr=on}} deep, with entrances above the water level and a chamber at the end that is big enough to allow the mugger to turn around.[2] Temperatures inside remains constant at {{convert|19.2|to|29|C}}, depending on region.[33]

Hunting and diet

The mugger crocodile preys on fish, snakes, turtles, birds and mammals including monkeys, squirrels, rodents, otters and dogs. It also scavenges on dead animals. During dry seasons, muggers walk many kilometers over land in search of water and prey.[3] Hatchlings feed mainly on insects such as beetles, but also on crabs and shrimp and on vertebrates later on.[6][7] Subadult and adult muggers favour fish, and prey on small to medium-sized ungulates up to the size of chital, a deer species Axis axis.[36] When hunting large mammals such as deer they will sometimes leave it to rot while wedged under water before pulling it apart.[20] They seize and drag potential prey approaching watersides into the water, when the opportunity arises. Adult muggers also feed on turtles and tortoises.[37][38] Muggers have also been observed while preying and feeding on a python.[7]

Tool use

Mugger crocodiles have been documented using lures to hunt birds.[39] This means they are among the first reptiles recorded to use tools. By balancing sticks and branches on their heads, they lure birds that are looking for nesting material. This strategy is particularly effective during the nesting season.[40]

Reproduction

Female muggers obtain sexual maturity at a body length of around {{convert|1.8|-|2.2|m|ft|abbr=on}} at the age of about 6.5 years, and males at around {{convert|2.6|m|ftin|abbr=on}} body length. The reproduction cycle starts earliest in November at the onset of the cold season with courtship and mating. Between February and June, females dig {{convert|35|-|56|cm|ft|abbr=on}} deep holes for nesting between {{convert|1|and|2000|m|ft|abbr=on}} away from the waterside. They lay up to two clutches with 8 to 46 eggs each. Eggs weigh {{convert|128|g|abbr=on}} on average. Laying of one clutch usually takes less than half an hour. Thereafter, females scrape sand over the nest to close it. Males have been observed to assist females in digging and protecting nest sites. Hatchling season is two months later, between April and June in South India, and in Sri Lanka between August and September. Then females excavate the young, pick them up in their snouts and take them to the water. Both females and males protect the young for up to one year.[2][3]

Healthy hatchlings develop at a temperature range of {{convert|28|-|33|C}}. Sex ratio of hatched eggs depends on incubation temperature and exposure of nests to sunshine. Only females develop at constant temperatures of {{convert|28|-|31|C}}, and only males at {{convert|32.5|C}}. Percentage of females in a clutch decreases at constant temperatures between {{convert|32.6|and|33|C}}, and of males between {{convert|31|and|32.4|C}}. Temperature in natural nests is not constant but varies between nights and days. Foremost females hatch in natural early nests when initial temperature inside nests ranges between {{convert|26.4|and|28.9|C}}. The percentage of male hatchlings increases in late nests located in sunny sites.[5] Hatchlings are {{convert|26|-|31|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and weigh {{convert|75|g|abbr=on}} on average when one month old. They grow about {{convert|4.25|cm|in|abbr=on}} per month and reach a body length of {{convert|90|-|170|cm|in|abbr=on}} when two years old.[2]

Sympatric crocodilians

The mugger crocodile is sympatric with the gharial in the river systems of the Ganges, Chambal, Son, Ramganga, Girwa and eastern Mahanadi, as well as in the Rapti and Narayani Rivers.[41][42][22]

In a few coastal areas, it overlaps in distribution with the saltwater crocodile but normally is able to avoid direct conflict by favoring different habitats. Mugger barely enters the brackish and saltwater habitat and prefers shallower waterways. It forages on more diverse prey.[4][43][44]

Attacks on humans

The mugger crocodile is potentially dangerous to humans. Fatal attacks have been reported, though less frequently than by saltwater and Nile crocodiles. Human victims are dragged into the water and drowned, but are rarely consumed.[45]

In the 1990s, several fatal attacks of muggers on humans have been reported in Gujarat, India.[46]

Since large muggers occasionally take livestock, this leads to conflict with local people living close to mugger habitat. In Maharashtra, local people are compensated for loss of close relatives and livestock.[7][47]

Threats

The mugger crocodile is threatened by habitat destruction because of conversion of natural habitats for agricultural and industrial use. As humans encroach into their habitat the incidents of conflict increase. Muggers are entangled in fishing equipment and drown, and are killed in areas where fishermen perceive them as competition.[1]

In Gujarat, two muggers were found killed, one in 2015 with the tail cut off and internal organs missing; the other in 2017, also with the tail cut off. The missing body parts indicate that the crocodiles were sacrificed in superstitious practices or used as aphrodisiacs.[48]

In January 2019, a programme to relocate 300 crocodiles from the area of the Statue of Unity in Gujarat started, prompting an outcry from people, including environmentalists.[49]

Conservation

The mugger crocodile is listed in CITES Appendix I, hence export of wild-caught specimen is banned.[1]

In captivity

In India, a total of 1,193 captive bred muggers were released to restock populations in 28 protected areas between 1978 and 1992. Production of new offspring was halted by the Indian Government in 1994.[1]

See also

  • Crocodiles in India
  • List of reptiles of South Asia

==References==

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2. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite journal |authors=Whitaker, R. and Whitaker, Z. |year=1984 |title=Reproductive biology of the Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=297−317 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbombay811984bomb/page/296}}
3. ^1 2 {{cite book |author=Whitaker, R. and Whitaker, Z. |year=1989 |chapter=Ecology of the mugger crocodile |title=Crocodiles, their ecology, management, and conservation |location=Gland |publisher= IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group |pages=276−296 |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/NS-1989-001.pdf}}
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38. ^{{cite journal |author=de Silva, M., Amarasinghe, A. A., de Silva, A., & Karunarathna, D. M. S. |year=2011 |title=Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris Lesson, 1831) preys on a radiated tortoise in Sri Lanka |journal=Taprobanica: The Journal of Asian Biodiversity |volume=3 |issue=1 |page=38−41}}
39. ^{{cite journal |first1=V. |last1=Dinets |first2=J.C. |last2=Brueggen|first3=J.D. |last3=Brueggen |title=Crocodilians use tools for hunting |journal=Ethology, Ecology and Evolution |year=2013 |volume=1 |pages=74 |doi=10.1080/03949370.2013.858276}}
40. ^{{cite journal |author=Venugopal, P. D. |year=2006 |title=Observations on Mugger Crocodylus palustris Lesson feeding on birds in Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary, Karnataka, India |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=103 |issue=1 |page=105}}
41. ^{{cite journal |authors=Rao, R. J., Choudhury, B. C. |year=1992 |title=Sympatric distribution of gharial and mugger in India |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=89 |pages=312–315 |url=https://archive.org/details/journalofbombay891992bomb/page/312}}
42. ^1 {{cite journal |author=Sharma, R.K. and Singh, L.A.K. |journal=Zoo's Print |title=Status of Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) in National Chambal Sanctuary after thirty years and its implications on conservation of Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) |year=2015 |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=9−16 |url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/37719711/Mugger_in_Chambal_after_30years_upload.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1540496087&Signature=jLPCNzyR2%2BOIONsiHwCAjbDMiLU%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DSharma_R.K._and_L.A.K._Singh._2015._Stat.pdf}}
43. ^{{cite journal |authors=Whitaker, R., Daniel, J. C. |year=1980 |title=The status of Indian crocodilians |journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society |volume=75 |issue=Supplement |page=1238−1245}}
44. ^{{cite journal |authors=Martin, S. |year=2008 |title=Global diversity of crocodiles (Crocodilia, Reptilia) in freshwater |journal=Hydrobiologia |volume=595 |issue=1 |pages=587−591}}
45. ^{{cite book |author=Sideleau, B., Britton, A. R. C |year=2012 |chapter=A preliminary analysis of worldwide crocodilian attacks |title=Crocodiles: Proceedings of the 21st Working Meeting of the IUCN–SSC Crocodile Specialist Group |publisher=IUCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist Group |pages=22−25 |location=Gland |chapterurl=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brandon_Sideleau/publication/269693729_Sideleau_B_and_ARC_Britton_ARC_2012_A_Preliminary_Analysis_of_Worldwide_Crocodilian_Attacks_Crocodiles_Proceedings_of_the_21st_Working_Meeting_of_the_IUCN-SSC_Crocodile_Specialist_Group_IUCN_Gland_Swi/links/54922a6f0cf2991ff5560ab6/Sideleau-B-and-ARC-Britton-ARC-2012-A-Preliminary-Analysis-of-Worldwide-Crocodilian-Attacks-Crocodiles-Proceedings-of-the-21st-Working-Meeting-of-the-IUCN-SSC-Crocodile-Specialist-Group-IUCN-Gland.pdf}}
46. ^{{cite journal |author=Vyas, R. |year=1993 |title=Recent cases of man-eating by the Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) in Gujarat State |journal=Hamadryad |volume=18 |page=48−49}}
47. ^{{cite book |author=Whitaker, N. |year=2007 |title=Survey of Human/Crocodile Conflict in India, Maharashtra State, December 2007 |publisher=Madras Crocodile Trust |location=Madras |url=http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/Whit-97cd8142.pdf}}
48. ^{{cite journal |author=Vyas, R. |year=2017 |title=Emergence of a new potential threat to the Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) population of Gujarat State, India |journal=Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=16−17 |url=http://www.iucncsg.org/365_docs/attachments/protarea/0add0eef2e93114c16d6db73f1a9aab3.pdf}}
49. ^{{Cite news |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-47010656 |title=Crocodiles moved from world's tallest statue |date=2019-01-26 |access-date=2019-01-26 |language=en-GB}}

External links

{{Wikispecies|Crocodylus palustris}}{{Commons category|Crocodylus palustris}}
  • {{EOL|795277|Crocodylus palustris}}
  • {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Mugger|year=1905 |short=x}}
  • {{cite news |date=2018 |title=Eight Crocodiles, Two Tortoises, Australian Parrots Seized; Two Held |publisher=Mid-Day |url=https://www.mid-day.com/articles/eight-crocodiles-two-tortoises-australian-parrots-seized-two-held/19854170}}
  • {{cite news |date=2018 |title=Marsh crocodiles in good condition in Iran |publisher=Tehran Times Daily Newspaper |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/427272/Marsh-crocodiles-in-good-condition-in-Iran}}
  • {{cite news |date=2011 |author=Nelson, D. |title=Fifteen-foot Bengali crocodile claims king of jungle title from tiger |publisher=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/8695915/Fifteen-foot-Bengali-crocodile-claims-king-of-jungle-title-from-tiger.html}}
{{Crocodilia|C.}}{{Crocs}}{{Taxonbar|from=Q81207}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Mugger Crocodile}}

11 : Fauna of South Asia|Reptiles of Iran|Reptiles of Pakistan|Reptiles of India|Reptiles of Nepal|Reptiles of Sri Lanka|National symbols of Pakistan|Crocodylidae|Tool-using tetrapods|Reptiles described in 1831|Crocodilians of Asia
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