| 词条 | Munda languages | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 释义 |
|name=Munda |region=India, Bangladesh |familycolor=Austro-Asiatic |child1=Kherwari (North) |child2=Korku (North) |child3=Kharia–Juang, Khonda |child4=Koraput (Remo, Savara) |iso2=mun |iso5=mun |glotto=mund1335 |glottorefname=Mundaic |map=Munda-Sprachen.png |mapcaption=Distribution of Munda language speakers in India }} The Munda languages are a language family spoken by about nine million people in central and eastern India and Bangladesh. They constitute a branch of the Austroasiatic language family, which means they are related to languages such as Mon and Khmer languages and Vietnamese, as well as minority languages in Thailand and Laos and the minority Mangic languages of South China.[1] The origins of the Munda languages are not known, but they predate the other languages of eastern India. Ho, Mundari, and Santali are notable languages of this group.[2][3] The family is generally divided into two branches: North Munda, spoken in the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Odisha, and South Munda, spoken in central Odisha and along the border between Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.[4][5] North Munda, of which Santali is the most widely spoken, is the larger group; its languages are spoken by about ninety percent of Munda speakers. After Santali, the Mundari and Ho languages rank next in number of speakers, followed by Korku and Sora. The remaining Munda languages are spoken by small, isolated groups of people and are poorly known. Characteristics of the Munda languages include three grammatical numbers (singular, dual and plural), two genders (animate and inanimate), a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns and the use of suffixes or auxiliaries to indicate tense. The Munda languages are also polysynthetic and agglutinating.[6] In Munda sound systems, consonant sequences are infrequent except in the middle of a word. Other than in Korku, whose syllables show a distinction between high and low tone, accent is predictable in the Munda languages. OriginMost linguists, like Paul Sidwell (2018), suggest that the proto-Munda language probably split from Austroasiatic somewhere in what is today southern China or Southeast Asia and arrived in eastern India about 4000-3500 years ago after Indo-Aryan migration to Odisha. [7] ClassificationMunda consists of five uncontroversial branches. However, their interrelationship is debated. Diffloth (1974)The bipartite Diffloth (1974) classification is widely cited:
Diffloth (2005)Diffloth (2005) retains Koraput (rejected by Anderson, below) but abandons South Munda and places Kharia–Juang with the northern languages: {{clade|label1=Munda |1={{clade |label1= Koraput |1={{clade |1=Remo |2=Savara |label2= Core Munda |2={{clade |1=Kharia–Juang |label2= North Munda |2={{clade |1=Korku |2=Kherwarian }} }} }} }} Anderson (1999)Gregory Anderson's 1999 proposal is as follows.[8]
However, in 2001, Anderson split Juang and Kharia apart from the Juang-Kharia branch and also excluded Gtaʔ from his former Gutob–Remo–Gtaʔ branch. Thus, his 2001 proposal includes 5 branches for South Munda. Anderson (2001)Anderson (2001) follows Diffloth (1974) apart from rejecting the validity of Koraput. He proposes instead, on the basis of morphological comparisons, that Proto-South Munda split directly into Diffloth's three daughter groups, Kharia–Juang, Sora–Gorum (Savara), and Gutob–Remo–Gtaʼ (Remo).[9]His South Munda branch contains the following five branches, while the North Munda branch is the same as those of Diffloth (1974) and Anderson (1999). {{quote|Sora–Gorum Juang ↔ Kharia ↔ Gutob–Remo ↔ Gtaʔ}}
Sidwell (2015)Paul Sidwell (2015:197)[10] considers Munda to consists of 6 coordinate branches, and does not accept South Munda as a unified subgroup.
Distribution{{Pie chart|label1=Santali |value1=45.1 |label2=Ho |value2=27.6 |label3=Mundari |value3=11.3 |label4=Juray |value4=5.8 |label5=Korku |value5=3.5 |label6=Sora |value6=2.3 |label7=Kharia |value7=2.1 |label8=Others |value8=2.3 |caption=Percentage of Munda speakers by language}}
ReconstructionThe following Proto-Munda lexical proto-forms have been reconstructed by Sidwell & Rau (2015: 319, 340-363).[11] Two asterisks are given to denote the tentative, preliminary state of the proto-language reconstruction.
See also
ReferencesNotes1. ^Bradley (2012) notes, MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic 2. ^{{cite web|last1=Pinnow|first1=Heinz-Jurgen|title=A comparative study of the verb in Munda language|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/pinnow1966comparative.pdf|website=Sealang.com|accessdate=22 March 2015}} 3. ^{{cite web|last1=Daladier|first1=Anne|title=Kinship and Spirit Terms Renewed as Classifiers of "Animate" Nouns and Their Reduced Combining Forms in Austroasiatic|url=http://elanguage.net/journals/bls/article/viewFile/752/645|website=http://elanguage.net|publisher=Elanguage|accessdate=22 March 2015}} 4. ^{{cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=S.|title=Munda studies: A new classification of Munda|date=1975|journal=Indo-Iranian Journal| volume= 17| issue =1 |issn=1572-8536|pages=97–101|url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/000000075794742852?crawler=true|accessdate=22 March 2015| doi=10.1163/000000075794742852}} 5. ^{{cite web|title=Munda languages|url=http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Munda.html|website=http://www.languagesgulper.com|accessdate=22 March 2015}} 6. ^{{Cite journal|last=Donegan|first=Patricia Jane|last2=Stampe|first2=David|date=|title=South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages|url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/BLS/article/download/1041/825|journal=Berkley Linguistics Society|volume=|pages=|via=}} 7. ^Sidwell, Paul. 2018. [https://www.academia.edu/36689736/Austroasiatic_Studies_state_of_the_art_in_2018 Austroasiatic Studies: state of the art in 2018]. Presentation at the Graduate Institute of Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan, May 22, 2018. 8. ^Anderson, Gregory D.S. (1999). "A new classification of the Munda languages: Evidence from comparative verb morphology." Paper presented at 209th meeting of the American Oriental Society, Baltimore, MD. 9. ^{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D S|authorlink=|editor=|others=|title=A New Classification of South Munda: Evidence from Comparative Verb Morphology|origyear=|month=|url=|format=|accessdate=|edition=|series=Indian Linguistics|volume=62|year=2001|publisher=Linguistic Society of India|location=Poona|language=|isbn=|oclc=|doi=|id=|pages=21–36|chapter=|chapterurl=|quote=|ref=}} 10. ^Sidwell, Paul. 2015. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. 11. ^Sidwell, Paul and Felix Rau (2015). "Austroasiatic Comparative-Historical Reconstruction: An Overview." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill. General references
Further reading
|last= |first= |authorlink= |editor=Gregory D S Anderson |others= |title=Munda Languages |origyear= |month= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Routledge Language Family Series |volume=3 |year=2008 |publisher=Routledge |location= |language= |isbn=0-415-32890-X |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }}
|last=Anderson |first=Gregory D S |authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=The Munda verb: typological perspectives |origyear= |month= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Trends in linguistics |volume=174 |year=2007 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |location=Berlin |language= |isbn=978-3-11-018965-0 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }}
|last=Donegan |first=Patricia |authorlink= |author2=David Stampe |editor= |others= |title=South-East Asian Features in the Munda Languages: Evidence for the Analytic-to-Synthetic Drift of Munda |origyear= |month= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |year=2002 |publisher=Berkeley Linguistics Society |location=In Patrick Chew, ed., Proceedings of the 28th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, Special Session on Tibeto-Burman and Southeast Asian Linguistics, in honor of Prof. James A. Matisoff. 111-129. Berkeley, CA |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }}
|last=Śarmā |first=Devīdatta |authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=Munda: sub-stratum of Tibeto-Himalayan languages |origyear= |month= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series=Studies in Tibeto-Himalayan languages |volume=7 |year=2003 |publisher=Mittal Publications |location=New Delhi |language= |isbn=81-7099-860-3 |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }}
|last=Newberry |first=J |authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=North Munda hieroglyphics |origyear= |month= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |year=2000 |publisher=J Newberry |location=Victoria BC CA |language= |isbn= |oclc= |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }}
|last=Varma |first=Siddheshwar |authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=Munda and Dravidian languages: a linguistic analysis |origyear= |month= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume= |year=1978 |publisher=Vishveshvaranand Vishva Bandhu Institute of Sanskrit and Indological Studies, Panjab University |location=Hoshiarpur |language= |isbn= |oclc=25852225 |doi= |id= |pages= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |ref= }} External links
1 : Munda languages |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。